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THE 


^MERICAN 

SILK  GROWER’S  GUIDE 

OR  THE 

ART  OF  RAISING 

THE 

MULBERRY  AND  SILK, 

< 

AND  THE  SYSTEM  OF 


SUCCESSIVE  CROPS  IN  EACH  SEASON. 


SECOND  EDITION,  ENLARGED  AND  IMPROVED. 


BY  WILLIAM  KENRICK, 


BOSTON : 

WEEKS,  JORDAN  & CO., 

, 121  Washington  street,  and 
JOSEPH  BRECK  & CO., 

Seed  Store,  Nos.  51  & 52  North  Market  street. 

1839. 


\\k 


Entered  according 
William  Kenrick, 
of  Massachusetts. 


S f 
SH5 

• C 2 Cf 

'■  i. 


to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1839,  by 
in  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court 


D.  H.  ELA,  PRLNTER, 
No.  19  Wa^hingtoTi  Street. 


INDEX. 


Page 

Preface,  5 

Introduction.  Chinese  Modes  of  Management ; Im- 


proved  Modes  adopted  in  France, 

7 

Section  1. 

History  of  Silk ; Its  Antiquity  and  Com- 

merce, 

9 

11. 

History  of  the  Silk- worm,  * 

17 

III. 

Varieties  of  Silk- worms, 

22 

Other  Varieties  of  Silk-worms, 

24. 

IV. 

Climate,  Shelter,  &c., 

25 

V. 

Mulberry, 

26 

VI. 

Black  Mulberry, 

28 

VII. 

Red  Mulberry, 

29 

vin. 

Japan  or  Paper  Mulberry, 

29 

IX. 

Shining  leaved  Mulberry, 

30 

X. 

Tartarean  Mulberry,  ^ ^ 

30 

XL 

Canton  Mulberry, 

30 

XII. 

White  Italian  Mulberry,  and  some  other 

Varieties, 

31 

XIII. 

Morettiana  Mulberry, 

33 

XiV. 

Chinese  Mulberry,  or  Morus  Multicaulis, 

33 

XV. 

Soil,  Situation  and  Climate, 

43 

XVI. 

Cultivation, 

47 

XVII. 

Plantations  of  Mulberry  Trees, 

49 

XVIII. 

Hedges,  or  Dwarf  Mulberry  Tree  Plan- 

tations, 

52 

XIX. 

Gathering  the  Leaves  for  food, 

54 

XX. 

Substitutes  for  the  Mulberry, 

56 

XXI. 

Modes  of  Making  Silk  in  different  Coun- 

tries, 

57 

XXII. 

Space  required  for  the  Silk-worms, 

62 

IV 


INDEX. 


Section. 

Page 

XXIII. 

Habitations,  or  Magnanerie,  Hurdles,  &c. 

65 

XXIV. 

Amount  of  Food  consumed. 

70 

XXV. 

Labor  and  Attendance, 

72 

XXVI. 

Hatching  the  Insects, 

73 

XXVII. 

Remarks  on  Feeding,  Quality  of  Food,  &c.. 

74 

XXVIII. 

Feeding,  Care  and  Attention, 

76 

XXIX. 

Formation  of  the  Cocoons, 

79 

XXX. 

Maladies  of  the  Silk-worms, 

81 

XXXI. 

Cocoons  for  producing  Eggs, 

83 

XXXII. 

Stifling  the  Cocoons  or  Chrysalides, 

84 

XXXIII. 

Transporting  Cocoons, 

87 

XXXIV. 

Reeling, 

87 

Piedmontese  Reel,  {with  a cut,)  ' 

92 

' New  French  Reel,  {with  cuts,) 

92 

XXXV. 

Different  Qualities  of  Cocoons, 

97 

On  Reeling,  (continued,) 

101 

XXXVI. 

Formation  of  Organzine,  Sewing  Silk,  &c.. 

102 

Brooks’s  Reeling  and  Spinning  Machine, 

106 

Dennis’s  Reeling  and  Spinning  Machine, 

107 

XXXVII. 

Produce  of  the  Silk-worm  and  of  Silk, 

108 

XXXVIII. 

Produce  of  Land,  of  Labor,  and  of  Silk, 

113 

XXXIX. 

Division  of  Labor. 

119 

XL. 

Remarks  on  the  Price  of  Labor, 

120 

XLI. 

Uses  and  Fabrics  of  Silk, 

127 

XLII. 

Successive  Crops  of  Silk, 

129 

XLIII. 

Modern  System  of  Count  Dandolo,  of 

Italy,  and  of  France, 

134 

XLIV. 

Production  and  Manufacture  of  Silk  in 

different  Countries, 

137 

XLV, 

Climate  of  America ; Silk  Establishments, 

150 

XLVI. 

Duties  on  Silk  and  Protection  Laws,  &-c.. 

156 

XLVII. 

Economical  Modes  of  Warming, 

159 

XLVIII. 

Price  of  Labor;  Power  of  Automata,  or 

Machinery, 

161 

XLIX. 

Climate  of  the  Northern  States, 

163 

Poetry. 

The  Silk-worrp’s  Will. 

165 

List  of  Authors,  &c  , quoted  or  consulted. 

166 

T O 


PREFACE 

THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


The  favorable  reception  by  the  public,  of  the  first  and  a large 
edition  of  this  work,  has  induced  me  to  offer  a new  volume,  with 
extensive  additions  and  improvements  from  the  new  and  abun- 
dant materials  which  have  come  to  hand. 

Particularly  have  I noticed  many  of  the  improvements  which 
have  been  adopted  in  some  of  the  silk  establishments  and  manu- 
factories which  have  so  lately  arisen  into  existence  in  the  various 
sections  of  our  country,  as  well  also  as  those  very  important  im- 
provements which  have  so  recently  been  adopted  in  France.  For 
here  chiefly  it  was,  and  with  reason,  that  I expected  to  find,  ex- 
emplified in  practice,  some  of  those  improvements,  the  most  sig- 
nal and  decisive,  of  the  latest  day. 

The  system  of  raising  silk,  which  1 have  more  especially  recom- 
mended for  America,  is,  in  many  respects,  another  and  separate 
system  from  that  which  is  usually  practised  in  the  less  favored 
sections  of  Europe.  It  is  the  system  particularly  adapted  to  our 
own  highly  favored  climate — to  our  more  serene  atmosphere,  and 
almost  perpetual  sunshine  during  summer,  and  to  the  peculiar 
requirements  of  our  people. 

Silk  is  believed  to  be  eminently  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate 
of  every  division  of  the  Great  Republic.  Our  serene  atmosphere 
is  peculiarly  favorable  to  its  growth,  and  the  prolonged  and  vigor- 
ous state  of  vegetation  during  our  summers.  The  genial  climate 
for  silk  is  ours,  and  the  highly  favored  soil  of  one  whole  continent 
of  the  great  western  world,  w^hich,  by  an  especial  providence, 
with  the  exception  only  of  Mexico,  has  fallen  to  our  share,  and  is 
ours  exclusively. 

The  annual  imports  of  Britain  are  four  million  pounds  of  raw 
and  thrown  silk,  at  a cost  of  about  £l  5s.  sterling  (^5  55)  per 
pound.  But  the  annual  value  of  the  silk  manufactured  in  Eng- 
land is  £14,000,000  sterling,  or  more  than  $62,000,000.  The 
manufactures  and  exports  of  France  also,  as  I have  elsew^here 
stated,  are  enormous.  4'he  value  of  silks  imported  into  the 
United  States,  jn  the  year  ending  in  September,  1836.,  was 
$22,862,177 ; besides  more  than  $6,000,000  in  value,  of  goods 
composed  of  part  silk,  and  part  cotton  or  worsted  ; — but  this  was 
a year  of  excessive  importation,  and  is  not  stated  as  a just  average. 
But  the  value  of  silks  imported  into  the  United  States  during  the 
previous  year,  or  the  year  ending  in  September,  1835,  amounted 
to  $16,497,980 ; this  being  the  original  or  first  cost  in  the  foreign 
country.  Neither  the  articles  of  raw  silk,  nor  any  of  those  nume- 
rous and  elegant  fabrics,  which  are  composed  of  part  silk  and  part 


VI 


PREFACE. 


cotton,  or  of  silk  and  worsted,  are  included  in  this  amount.  Dur- 
ing this  period,  only  $486,562  worth  of  this  great  amount  was 
exported;  leaving  $16,11 1,418  for  consumption.  But  the  actual 
amount  of  silks,  without  mixture,  which  are  consumed  by  the 
American  people,  or  the  whole  cost  at  retail  to  the  actual  consumer, 
may  be  fairly  estimated  at  more  than  $22,000,000  for  the  year. 
It  must  be  even  greater  in  this  day.  And  the  demand,  which  is 
now  so  great,  is  continually  increasing.  Not  half  this  amount  of 
silk  was  consumed  eight  years  ago ; and  since  1821,  and  during 
seventeen  years,  the  amount  of  silks  consumed  has  doubled  twice. 

Asia,  and  the  country  from  whence  originally  we  derived  the 
silk- worm,  has  also  given  to  America  the  new  plant,  so  surpass- 
ing in  beauty,  and  which,  from  the  superior  nutritive  quality  of 
the  leaf,  and  the  promptitude  with  which  it  is  renewed,  will  afford 
the  abundant  and  continued  succession  of  nourishment  for  a 
double  harvest — a plant,  which,  from  the  extraordinary  quality 
and  size  of  the  leaf,  will  give  to  this  new  and  great  interest  a 
new  and  decisive  impulse,  by  producing  the  most  decided  saving 
of  time  in  the  cultivation,  and  an  all-important  saving  of  labor  in 
gathering  the  food.  In  this  reference  I may  moreover  include 
that  other  new  Chinese  mulberry,  so  lately  introduced  from  China, 
and  described  at  page  30 ; and  which  is  also  of  high  character,  and 
eminently  splendid.  Many  trees  of  this  variety,  received  by  John 
P.  Cushing,  Esq.,  of  Belmont,  Watertown,  direct  from  his  Chinese 
friend  at  Canton,  have  been  liberally  disseminated  by  him. 

Our  advantages  are  indeed  very  great ; to  be  duly  appreciated 
they  must  be  estimated  singly  and  individually.  How  much  greater 
and  more  striking  will  they  then  appear,  if  considered  collective- 
ly. Our  innumerable  rivers  and  rapid  streams,  our  immense 
forests  and  mines,  the  exhaustless  treasures  of  fuel  and  of  flame, 
the  combined  elements  of  water,  earth,  and  of  fire,  offer  resources 
of  mighty  power,  unknown  and  immeasurable,  and  willing  aids 
in  abridging  the  labors  of  man. 

History  will  record  to  endless  remembrance,  the  names  of  those 
illustrious  individuals  who  have  persevered  as  the  faithful  guides 
and  pioneers  in  this  great  work— those  who,  by  their  example  or 
writings,  have  served  as  lights  to  illumine  our  way,  and  to  cheer 
us  through  the  long,  dark  and  dreary  night. 

The  decisive  impulse  is  already  given — already  are  its  mighty 
influences  extending  throughout  our  country,  far  and  wide.  The 
Americans  are  awake  ! Hope  dawns  auspicious — the  day  and  its 
brightness  will  be  ours.  Endowed,  as  are  our  people,  with  forti- 
tude, with  energy,  and  with  intellectual  resources  unsurpassed — 
is  there  one  American  who  can  doubt  ^ 

Most  of  all,  might  I desire  to  be  useful,  by  aiding  in  the  intro- 
duction of  a culture,  which  may  make  rich  the  people,  even  of 
the  less  fertile  districts,  and  open  to  our  country  the  resources  of 
unceasing  wealth.  William  Kenrick. 

JVonantum  Hill,  Newton,  Mass,,  1839. 


INTRODUCTION. 


CHINESE  MODES  OF  MANAGEMENT.  IMPROVED 
MODES  ADOPTED  IN  FRANCE. 

According  to  the  authority  of  the  Chinese  treatises,  and  also 
the  high  authority  of  M.  Camille  Beauvais,  while  the  French 
have  usually  lost  near  fifty  in  one  hundred  of  their  silk-worms, 
the  Chinese  hardly  lose  one  in  a hundred.  This  may,  in  part,  be 
ascribed  to  their  practice  of  rejecting  in  the  first  instance,  and 
invariably,  those  few  worms  that  hatch  first,  and  also  to  the  great 
attention  they  pay  to  the  insects ; but  principally,  and  most  of  all, 
their  great  success  is  ascribed  to  their  subsequent  treatment  of  the 
insects,  and  particularly  to  their  modes  contrived  for  the  purposes 
of  ventilation.  By  these  modes,  the  exterior  air  is  made  to  enter 
the  apartment  for  the  silk- worms,  by  numerous  tubes  on  a line 
level  with  the  floor.  When  these  tubes  are  opened,  an  impure 
atmosphere  is  expelled  upwards,  and  escapes  through  various 
openings  in  the  ceiling  or  roof,  and  the  air  of  the  rooms  is  cooled 
and  refreshed.  When  it  is  desired  to  elevate  the  temperature, 
these  openings  are  closed.  When  the  silk-worms  are  forming 
their  cocoons,  the  temperature  is  always  kept  elevated.  If  the 
warmth  of  the  atmosphere  is  insufficient,  small  chafing  dishes  of 
coals  are  occasionally  placed  beneath  two  large  hurdles,  which 
are  united  at  top  and  stand  inclining. 

At  the  Government  establishment,  or  experimental  silk  farm, 
near  Montgeron,  in  the  north  of  France,  M.  Camille  Beauvais,  the 
superintendent,  has  adopted,  with  signal  success,  the  more  com- 
plete system  of  ventilation  and  of  warming  the  apartments,  in- 
vented by  M.  D’Arcet.  By  this  mode,  the  air  of  a whole  estab- 
lishment is  speedily  warmed  by  means  of  a furnace  in  the  cellar, 
the  heated  air  being  conveyed  beneath  by  flues,  is  admitted  up- 
wards to  the  apartment  by  numerous  openings,  which  are  distri- 
buted in  the  floor ; the  cold  and  impure  air,  being  expelled  upwards, 
escapes  by  numerous  openings  in  the  roof.  In  most  of  our  cities, 
at  this  day,  many  private  houses,  and  a great  proportion  of  the 
public  houses  and  churches  are  warmed  in  this  way  ; an  equal 
temperature  is  thus  produced  in  a mode  the  most  perfect  and 
economical  hitherto  devised.  In  like  manner,  as  I conceive,  a 
pure,  cool  and  refreshing  atmosphere  may  also,  at  any  time,  be 


Vlll 


INTRODUCTION. 


forced  into  an  apartment  from  beneath  the  floor,  through  nume- 
rous openings  by  strong  currents  of  air  artificially  produced, 
which  would,  in  a few  moments  of  time,  expel,  through  nume- 
rous openings  in  the  roof,  the  whole  interior  and  impure  heated 
atmosphere  of  a vast  apartment  of  silk- worms.  Thus  it  is,  that 
in  some  parts  of  India,  the  apartments  of  the  opulent  are  refreshed 
by  cool  breezes  artificiahy  produced,  a man  standing  at  the  door 
with  a vast  fan. 

Already  at  this  establishment,  and  by  his  extraordinary  man- 
agement, has  M.  Camille  Beauvais  succeeded  in  producing  thir- 
teen pounds  of  silk  from  the  same  number  of  silk-worms  which 
in  France  usually  produce  but  five  pounds,  and  in  Italy  seven 
and  a half  pounds,  and  in  India  twenty  pounds  ; and  even  in  that 
cold  climate,  he  expects  soon  to  be  able  to  produce  an  equal 
number  of  pounds. 

Through  the  politeness  of  Edward  S.  Rand,  Esq.,  of  Newbu- 
ryport,  I have  been  favored  with  the  loan  of  a splendid  Chinese 
quarto  volume,  the  property  of  Capt.  David  Wood,  of  that  town, 
and  brought  out  by  him  from  China.  It  is  composed  of  twenty- 
eight  superb  colored  engravings  on  rice  paper,  which  represent 
every  part  of  the  process  of  cultivating  the  Mulberry,  and  of 
raising  silk,  from  the  first  planting  of  the  mulberry,  until  the 
reeled  silk  is  wound  off  from  the  reel  by  hand,  upon  the  distaff. 

In  those  engravings,  the  plants  are  represented  as  kept  low  for 
the  convenience  of  gathering  the  leaves ; or,  rising  up  in  spring, 
usually  several  stalks  from  the  same  root.  The  gathering  of  the 
leaves  commences  in  the  first  year.  The  trees  being  successively 
stripped  of  their  leaves  during  summer,  in  autumn  the  shrubs, 
thus  defoliated,  are  cut  down  for  the  production  of  a new,  luxu- 
riant and  future  crop  of  leaves.  1 his  is  in  perfect  conformity  to 
the  statements  of  Mr.  Cushing,  w’ho  resided  in  China  many 
years.  In  gathering  the  leaves,  I observe  that  the  footstalks  are 
always  left,  and  also  a few  small  leaves  on  the  summit,  until  the 
last  gathering  of  the  season  takes  place,  and  previous  to  the  plants 
being  cut  down  in  autumn. 

The  ninth  Plate,  is  a representation  of  children  and  females 
0-athering  the  leaves  in  the  manner  above  described,  from  the 
young  trees  of  a few  feet  in  height,  and  of  the  first  year’s  growth. 

The  tenth  Plate,  is  a representation  of  the  plantation  thus 
stripped  of  its  verdure  ; it  shews  also  the  modes  and  process  of 
the  cultivation. 

The  eleventh  Plate,  is  a representation  of  the  second  gathering 
of  the  leaves  of  the  season,  by  females,  from  the  trees,  which  are 
now  of  a more  advanced  growth. 

The  ticeljih  Plate,  is  a representation  of  the  operation  of  cutting 
down  the  plants,  to  near  the\surface  of  the  earth,  after  they  have 
been  completely  defoliated  for  the  last  time  of  the  season. 

Other  modes  of  management  in  China  are  given  in  detail  at 
p.  58. 


SILK  GROWER’S  GUIDE. 


SECTION  I. 

HISTORY  OF  SILK:  ITS  ANTIQUITY  AND  COMMERCE. 

Silk,  or  the  splendid  material  produced  by  the  silk- 
worm, was  first  known  in  ancient  Se?'  or  Scrica^  in  Chi- 
na. It  was  there  first  discovered  in  its  own  native  for- 
ests of  the  mulberry-tree.  In  that  country  it  was  called 
Se^  and  by  transition  it  was  called  Ser  by  the  Greeks, 
and  Sericum  by  the  Romans;  and  hence  by  the  differ- 
ent nations  of  Italy,  of  France,  and  of  England,  it  is 
variously  called  Seta,  Soie,  and  Silk  at  the  present  day. 
Anciently  also,  it  was  called  Bomhykya,  or  Bomhycina, 
from  Bombyx,  a caterpillar  which  spins  a web. 

The  silk-worm,  or  Bombyx  mori,  is  a precious  insect, 
which  is  thus  denominated  from  morus,  the  plant  on 
which  it  feeds  ; otherwise,  and  anciently,  the  Bombyx 
Assyrian  or  Syrian,  improperly  so  called,  since  the 
country  of  the  Seres  or  Chinese,  was  another  country,  the 
most  remote,  and  bounded  on  other  shores;  many  a na- 
tion and  far  distant  country  intervening. 

The  cultivation  of  silk  commenced  in  China  700 
years  before  Abraham,  and  2700  years  before  Christ, 
2 


10 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


The  Emperor  Hoiing-ti,  ‘‘the  Emperor  of  the  Earth,” 
who  reigned  over  Cliinamore  than  100  years,  and  whose 
name  is  rendered  immortal  for  his  noble  and  useful 
deeds — he  who  taught  the  Chinese  to  construct  houses, 
ships,  mills,  carts,  and  other  works  of  usefulness — he, 
also,  persuaded  his  first  consort,  Si-ling-chi,  to  bestow 
her  attention  on  the  silk-worms,  it  beincr  his  earnest  de- 
sire  that  his  Empress  also  might  contribute  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  empire.  Aided  by  the  women  of  her  house- 
hold, the  Empress  Si-ling-chi  gathered  the  silk-worms 
from  the  trees,  and  introduced  them  to  the  imperial 
apartments.  Thus  sheltered  and  protected,  and  abund- 
antly supplied  with  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry,  they 
yielded  silk  superior  in  quality  to  that  produced  in  the 
forests.  She  also  taught  them  its  manufacture,  and  to 
embroider.  ' 

Silk  and  its  manufacture,  and  the  weaving,  continued 
to  be  the  principal  occupation  of  tlie  succeeding  Em- 
presses ; apartments  being  especially  appropriated  to  this 
purpose,  in  the  Imperial  Pidace;  and  soon,  from  the 
highest  rank  of  females,  it  became  the  occupation  of  all 
ranks  in  China  ; and  ere  long,  the  Emperor,  the  learned 
class,  tlie  princes,  the  mandarins,  and  courtiers,  and  all 
the  rich,  were  attired  in  the  splendid  fabrics  of  silk, 
until  finally,  silk  became  the  great  and  inexhaustible  re- 
source of  the  wealth  of  China. 

From  China  it  was  exported  to  India,  to  Persia,  to 
Arabia,  and  indeed  to  the  whole  of  Asia.  The  caravans 
of  Serica  performed  long  journeys  of  243  days,  from  the 
far  coasts  of  China  to  those  of  Syria.  Silk  was  also  re- 
woven and  manufactured  at  a very  ancient  date,  in  the 
island  of  Kos,  situated  in  tlie  Archipelago,  from  the  sub- 
stantial fabrics  which  were  received  from  Seres.  It  w^as 
here  that  Pamphila  first  invented  and  taught  her  nymphs 
to  unravel,  and  with* her  loom  to  recompose  from  the 
precious  material,  the  thin  transparent  gauze  and  the 
other  fabrics  of  an  equally'^extended  nature. 

The  expeditions  of  Alexander  to  Persia,  and  to  India, 


HISTORY  OF  SILK. 


11 


^rst  introdaced  the  knowledge  of  silk  to  the  Gre- 
cians, 350  years  before  Christ,  and  with  the  increase  of 
wealth  and  luxury  in  the  Grecian  court,  the  demand  of 
silks  prodigiously  augmented.  Persia  engrossed  for  a 
time  the  trade  of  Greece,  and  became  rich  in  the  com- 
merce of  silk,  which  they  procured  from  China.  The 
ancient  Phoenicians  also  engaged  in  the  trafBc  of  silk, 
and  finally  carried  it  to  the  east  of  Europe.  But  for  a 
long  time  after,  even  those  who  brought  it  to  Europe 
knew  not  what  it  was,  nor  how  it  was  produced,  nor 
where  situated  was  the  original  country  of  Serica  from 
whence  it  came. 

Ser  or  Serica  was  called  Sereinda,  a name  evidently 
composed  of  Seres  and  of  Indi,  the  names  of  two  distinct 
and  separate  countries  which  the  ancients  had  thus  con- 
founded ; even  as  the  name  India  Iyas  been,  and  still  is, 
often  indiscriminately  applied  to  all  the  countries  of  the 
whole  east  of  Asia,  at  the  present  day. 

Ammianus  Marcell inus,  the  celebrated  historian,  has 
described  the  Seres  as  a sedate  and  gentle  people,  living 
in  perpetual  peace  with  the  neighboring  nations,  and 
therefore  exempted  alike  from  the  calamities  and  the 
alarms  of  war  : with  no  occasion  for  offensive  weapons 
or  even  the  knowledge  of  their  use.  Blessed  with  a soil 
the  most  fertile,  and  a climate  the  most  delightful  and 
salubrious,  they  are  represented  as  passing  their  happy 
days  in  the  most  perfect  tranquillity  and  delightful  leis- 
ure, amid  shady  groves,  fanned  by  gentle  breezes,  and 
producing  fleeces  of  downy  wool,  which,  after  being 
sprinkled  with  water,  is  combed  off  in  the  finest  threads 
and  woven  into  sericum.'^ 

This  fable,  which  undoubtedly  served  for  ages  to  de- 
ceive the  nations,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  invention 
of  the  Seres  themselves,  that  they  might  appear  to  the 
wondering  world  as  a peculiar  people,  on  whom  blessings 
were  profusely  showered  down  from  heaven,  in  which 
no  other  nation  could  expect  to  participate. 

At  Rome,  and  so  late  as  A.  D.  280,  a silk  attire  of 


12 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


purple,  was  accounted  by  an  Emperor  as  a luxury  too 
expensive  even  for  an  Empress,  and  that  Empress  his 
wife,  Severa ; its  value  being  equal  to  that  of  gold,  by 
weicrht.  Others  there  were  at  Rome,  and  enouorh  even 
at  that  day,  who  were  by  no  means  thus  scrupulous  in 
regard  to  price.  But  it  was  not  till  long  after  the  seat 
of  the  Roman  Empire  had  been  transferred  to  Byzanti- 
um or  Constantinople,  that  the  distinct  and  more  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  nature  and  origin  of  silk  became 
known,  and  the  mystery  of  the  long  sought  ^‘golden 
fleece  ” was  revealed  to  Europe. 

In  the  sixth  century,  two  monks  arrived  at  the  court 
of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  at  Constantinople,  from  amis- 
sionary expedition  to  China.  They  had  brought  with 
them  the  seeds  of  the  mulberry,  and  communicated  to 
him  the  discovery  of  the  mode  of  rearing  the  silk-worms. 
And  although  the  exportation  of  the  insects  from  China 
was  forbidden,  on  pain  of  death,  yet  by  the  liberal  prom- 
ises and  persuasions  of  Justinian,  they  undertook  anew 
expedition,  and  at  length  they  returned  through  Bouk- 
liaria  and  Persia  to  Constantinople,  in  555,  with  the  eggs 
of  the  precious  insect  concealed  in  the  hollow  of  their 
canes  or  pilgrims’  staves,  which  they  had  obtained  in  the 
far  and  still  more  distant  country.  Until  this  time,  the 
extensive  manufactures  of  the  Phoenician  cities  of  Tyre 
and  Berytus  had  received  their  whole  supplies  of  raw 
silk  through  Persia  from  China.  Even  to  the  days  of 
Justinian,  according  to  ancient  historians,  no  person  at 
Constantinople  knew  to  a certainty  that  silk  was  the  pro- 
duction of  an  insect.  It  was  generally  supposed  to  be 
produced  from  the  bark  or  leaves  of  trees,  or  growing 
like  the  finest  hair  from  their  branches.  A new  era  now 
commenced. 

In  Greece,  the  culture  and  manufacture  of  silk  soon  over- 
spread the  country  ; the  noblest  families  themselves  aided 
by  their  example.  The  people  of  Thebes  and  Athens, from 
the  time  of  Justinian,  cultivated  and  manufactured  silk 
for  400  years.  And  the  Venetians  in  the  height  of  their 


HISTORY  OF  SILK. 


13 


prosperity  and  commercial  glory,  carried  supplies  of  silk 
from  Greece  to  the  whole  west  of  Europe.  On  the 
downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Arabia  became  the  seat 
and  centre  of  science,  of  arts,  and  of  civilization.  The 
establishment  of  the  Turkish  power  in  Asia  about  the 
middle  of  the  6th  century,  and  the  subsequent  wars, 
caused  great  interruption  to  the  caravan  trade  between 
China  and  Persia.  And  after  the  conquests  of  Moham- 
med II.  the  Saracens  or  Arabians  planted  the  mulberry 
and  encouraged  the  culture  of  silk  everywhere,  through- 
out their  dominions,  both  on  the  islands  and  on  all  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Silk  and  the  mulberry 
were  introduced  to  Spain  and  Portugal  by  the  Arabians 
or  Saracens,  on  their  conquest  of  those  countries  in  711. 
Spain  is  also  indebted  to  their  enlightened  conquerors, 
for  their  political  redemption  from  barbarism.  Those 
wise  sovereigns,  the  great  Caliph  Haroun  al  Raschid, 
and  his  immediate  successor,  introduced  as  axioms  of 
policy,  the  arts  of  civilization,  as  essential  to  the  welfare 
of  a nation — the  practice  of  agriculture,  commerce  and 
industry,  being  especially  inculcated  by  the  Koran  it- 
self; thus  elevated  to  virtues,  they  are  ranked  with  the 
good  deeds  of  the  believer. 

From  Greece  the  cultivation  of  silk  was  introduced  to 
Sicily  and  Naples.  Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  on  his  inva- 
sion of  Greece  in  1146,  introduced  by  compulsion  many 
silk  weavers  and  manufacturers,  which  he  carried  to 
Palermo.  In  20  years,  the  manufactures  of  Sicily  be- 
came famous,  being  adorned  with  various  colors  and 
figures,  interwoven  with  gold,  and  embellished  with 
pearls.  Here  it  long  mysteriously  remained,  and  it  was 
not  till  1540  that  it  had  extended  to  Piedmont  and  in- 
deed to  all  Italy.  So  extensive  is  its  cultivation  at  the 
present  day  throughout  Italy,  that  according  to  Count 
Dandolo,  two  thirds  of  their  whole  exports  to  all  coun- 
tries consist  of  silk.  Its  first  introduction  to  France 
was  in  1494;  but  no  very  important  result  succeeded, 
until,  in  1564,  Traucat,  a common  gardener  of  Nismes, 


14 


SILK  GROWER  S GUIDE. 


established  the  first  foundation  of  a nursery  of  White 
Mulberry  trees,  with  an  effect  so  successful,  that,  from 
this  source,  as  from  a centre,  the  cultivation  extended 
within  a few  years  over  the  whole  of  the  southern  pro- 
vinces of  France.  But  its  final  and  more  complete  es- 
tablishment in  France  in  1603,  is  due  to  Henry  IV., 
who  encouraged  by  every  mode  the  formation  of  nurse- 
ries, and  the  manufactures  of  silk,  even  in  thenorthern, 
as  well  as  middle  provinces  of  the  kingdom,  and  whose 
name  is  held  in  perpetual  remembrance  for  his  noble 
deeds  of  goodness  and  works  of  usefulness.  Olivier  de 
Serres  shares  equally  with  him  the  glory  of  the  effectual 
v/ork,  which  was  at  first  opposed  even  by  Sully,  from 
mistake  and  misapprehension.  Colbert,  in  a succeed- 
ing age,  continued  bis  fostering  care.  Both  Colbert 
and  his  illustrious  predecessor,  by  bounties  judiciously 
bestowed,  caused  both  the  mulberry  tree  and  its  cul- 
ture to  strike  deep  and  permanent  root  in  the  soil  of 
France.  Once  established,  it  has  stood,  unmoved  by 
every  revolution  and  storm  : — unprotected  and  alone, 
while  all  things  else  have  fallen,  this  important  indus- 
try has  flourished,  until  finally,  silk  and  its  manufacture 
has  become  one  of  the  most  productive  sources  of  the 
wealth  and  the  power  of  France. 

The  whole  value  of  the  silks  manufactured  annually 
in  France  in  1835,  amounted  by  conoputation,  to  140, 
000,000  francs,  and  it  was  estimated  in  Europe,  that  in 
that  year,  silks  to  the  amount  of  50,000,000  francs  were 
exported  from  that  country  to  the  United  States  alone. 

Yet  in  France,  although  they  raise  so  much  silk,  they 
still  import  annually,  totlie  amount  of  43,000,000  francs 
t)f  raw  silk,  or  nearly  one  third  of  all  they  consume,  for 
the  supply  of  their  manufactures. 

In  England,  the  climate,  from  its  humidity  or  other 
causes,  is  found  to  he  unsuited  to  its  growth  ; for  this 
reason  alone,  the  trials  to  raise  it  there  have  failed.  Yet 
from  1821  to  1823,  according  to  a late  and  authentic 
work  on  the  silk  trade,  they  imported  of  raw  silk, 


HISTORY  OF  SILK. 


15 


'24,157,563  lbs.;  worth  $120,787,580.  Of  this  amount 
$59,831,283  came  from  Italy  alone. 

At  the  present  day,  the  silks  which  were  consumed  in 
Great  Britain  alone,  so  late  as  1835,  amounted  to  the 
enormous  sum  of  $23,232,532  annually,  at  the  whole- 
sale prices,  besides  the  whole  amount  of  all  they  ex- 
ported. 

The  sudden  and  extraordinary  extension  of  the  silk 
manufactures,  both  in  France  and  in  England,  during 
the  last  18  years,  has  been  mainly  ascribed  to  the  ma- 
chine invented  in  France  by  M.  Jacquard;  and  the 
powerful  impulse  thus  given,  has  been  assigned  to  the 
Jacquard  Looui.  This  loom  is  stated  to  perform  all 
those  labors  which  had  heretofore  been  exclusively  con- 
fined to  the  most  skilful  hands,  with  important  economy 
of  time,  and  of  labor  in  the  preliminary  steps,  and  is  so 
decidedly  superior  to  all  other  looms,  for  all  the  curi- 
ous varieties  of  figure-silk  weaving,  that  it  has  super- 
seded them  all,  both  throughout  France  and  England. 

Yet  in  our  own  country,  so  highly  favored  in  all  res- 
pects by  nature,  the  successful  introduction  of  the  silk 
culture,  is  mainly  due  to  individual  exertion.  One  day, 
the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry,  and  the  growth  and 
manufacture  of  silk,  in  the  United  States,  will  become 
a very  importanfresource  of  wealth  to  the  nation.  Un- 
supported and  alone,  the  work  has  wonderfully  begun, 
and  is  now  taking  deep  and  permanent  root  in  the  soil 
of  our  country. 

I have  before  stated,  that,  according  to  the  report  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the  value  of  silks 
imported  into  the  United  States  during  the  year  ending 
30th  September,  1835,  amounted  to  $16,597,980 : 
this  being  the  original  or  first  cost  in  the  foreign  coun- 
tries. During  this  period,  only  $486,562  worth  of  this 
great  amount  was  exported  : and  the  actual  cost  of  the 
above  to  the  American  people,  or  the  tohole  retail  cost 
to  the  actual  consumer,  may  be  estimated  at  more  than 
$22,000,000  for  the  year.  Most  of  all  this  was  imported 
from  Italy,  Switzerland  and  from  France.  Formerly, 


16 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


half  our  imports  were  from  China.  Yet  neither  the 
articles  of  raw  silk,  nor  any  of  those  numerous,  substan- 
tial, and  elegant  fabrics,  which  are  composed  of  part 
silk,  and  part  cotton,  or  mixtures  of  silk  and  worsted, 
are  included  in  the  above  amount.  In  no  year  previous 
to  1821,  had  the  annual  amount  consumed  arisen  to  one 
fourth  of  what  it  was  in  1835.  Butin  no  year  previous  to 
1839  had  the  annual  consumption  arisen  to  one  /m/f  this 
amount;  the  increase  during  15  years  being  fourfold. 

In  the  year  ending  September  1836,  the  importations 
of  silk  amounted  to  $22,000,000  at  the  first  cost  in  for- 
eign countries;  and  the  imports  of  those  fabrics  com- 
posed of  part  silk  and  cotton,  and  part  silk  and  worsted, 
amounted  to  $6,000,000  more  in  that  same  year  ; but 
this  was  a year  of  excessive  importations  and  is  not 
stated  as  the  average. 

Those  resources,  the  millions  we  now  annually  ex- 
pend for  silks,  the  productions  of  foreign  industry  and 
of  foreign  policy  ; those  vast  sums  should  be  preserved 
to  our  own  citizens,  and  a great  and  general  interest 
encouraged — an  interest  so  adapted,  as  an  occupation 
for  the  feeble,  and  a resource  for  the  poor,  and  to 
awaken  to  habits  of  industry  and  of  virtue  the  rising 
generation.  Thus  instructed  and  educated,  they  will 
be  enabled  to  contribute  their  share  to  the  public  hap- 
piness and  prosperity,  and  to  add  to  the  resources  and 
wealth  of  the  country. 

The  enterprise,  the  fertile  invention,  the  noble  efforts 
of  individual  exertion,  have  already  accomplished  much  ; 
but  much  yet  remains  to  be  done.  That  industry,  that 
portion  which,  unawakened  is  now  lost,  being  alone  more 
than  sufficient  to  accomplish  all — more  than  sufiicient  to 
recover  again  those  very  considerable  sums,  the  millions 
so  lavishly  expended,  with  interest  an  hundred  fold. 

By  those  unceasing  toils,  and  mighty  efforts,  and 
matchless  labors,  for  which  our  people  are  so  distin- 
guished ; the  millions  thi}s  recovered,  will  not  only  be 
their  just  reward,  but  will  add  to  the  substantial  wealth 
of  the  nation,  and  to  the  glory  of  the  whole  republic. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  SILK-WORM. 


17 


SECTION  II. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  SILK-VVORM. 

The  silk-worm  or  Bombyx  mori,  is  a caterpillar  ; its 
body  formed  of  twelve  membranous  rings,  which  sup- 
port the  legs,  which  are  sixteen  in  number  and  in  pairs. 
Six  of  these  are  in  front  and  inflexible,  and  situated  be- 
neath the  three  first  rings,  and  are  each  covered  with  a 
scale.  The  other  ten  are  flexible,  and  membranous, 
their  positions  beneath  the  riqgs  ; these  are  called  climb- 
ers or  holders,  and  are  provided  with  sharp  hooks  or 
claws,  to  aid  in  climbing.  The  head  has  a horny  cov- 
ering; like  a scale;  the  jaws  are  very  strong,  the  teeth 
sharp,  serrated,  or  indented  like  a saw.  The  mouth  is 
vertical  and  peculiar,  and  not  horizontal  as  in  most  other 
beings;  two  broad  objects  in  its  forehead,  which  might 
be  mistaken  for  eyes,  are  but  bones  of  the  skull.  The 
eyes  are  small,  fourteen  in  number,  seven  on  each  side 
of  the  head  and  near  the  mouth.  The  organs  of  respi- 
ration are  eighteen  in  number  ; equi-distant,  and  situated 
along  the  body  are  the  holes  or  openings,  nine  on  each 
side,  which  serve  for  breathing. 

The  substance  of  which  the  silk  is  composed  is  a li- 
quid transparent  gum,  of  a fine  yellow  color,  and  is  con- 
tained in  two  separate  sacks,  of  slender  dimensions.  Each 
of  these  vessels  is  about  ten  inches  in  length,  and 
wound  in  the  stomach  in  spiral  folds:  near  the  jaws  two 
ducts  convey  the  silken  fluid  ; these  uniting  in  one  serve 
to  compose  the  silken  thread,  which  is  usually  from  400 
to  1200  feet  in  length. 

The  eggs  of  the  silk-worm  are  of  a dark  lilac  or  slate 
color.  The  silk-worms  are  at  first  black  and  extremely 
small;  as  they  advance  in  age  and  size,  they  cast  off 
their  outer  covering  or  skin,  usually  from  three  to  four 
times  at  difierent  periods,  according  to  the  variety. 
These  successive  changes  are  called  nioultings ; and  the 


18 


SILTIv  grower’s  guide. 


times  intervening  are  termed  ages.  In  a colder  tern 
perature,  the  duration  of  these  several  periods  is  pro- 
longed ; but  in  a warm  climate,  the  period  or  season  of 
the  first  moulting,  which  terminates  the  first  age,  usually 
occurs  on  the  fourth  or  fifth  day  of  its  existence;  the 
second  on  the  eighth  or  ninth  day  ; the  third  on  the  thir- 
teenth or  fourteenth  day;  and  the  last  on  the  twenty- 
second  day.  At  each  of  these  critical  periods,  the  silk- 
worms remain  in  a torpid  state,  eating  littl^e  or  absolute- 
ly nothing  for  a day  or  more.  At  the  end  of  about  ten 
days  more  from  the  last  period,  or  in  about  thirty-two 
days  from  the  beginning,  the  insect,  now  fully  grown, 
is  about  three  inches  and  one  third  in  length,  transpa- 
rent, of  a yellowish  white  or  pearl  color.  Having  now 
completed  their  fifth  or  last  age,  they  eat  no  more,  but 
ascend  to  the  leaves  or  brushwood,  which  are  placed 
for  the  purpose,  and  commence  the  formation  of  the 
cocoons;  and  in  the  construction  of  these,  the  insect 
works  busily  and  incessantly  night  and  day,  during  four 
days.  The  labor  finished,  the  insect  in  the  centre  be- 
comes transformed  to  the  chrysalis  state. 

The  vital  functions  of  the  silk-worm  are  accelerated  by 
v.rarmth  and  the  time  occupied  in  passing  through  the  va- 
rious mutations, is  hastened,  not  only  by  the  increased  tem- 
perature, but  materially  by  the  degree  of  attention  which 
is  bestowed  on  the  insects.  In  Madras,  according  to 
Dr.  Anderson,  and  where  the  climate  is  very  warm,  the 
silk-worm  passes  through  all  its  evolutions  in  days. 
Here  then  is  a saving  of  time  as  well  as  labor,  but  none 
in  regard  to  food,  as  it  is  admitted  that  the  silk-worms 
consume  the  same  amount  of  food  to  produce  the  same 
weight  of  cocoons,  be  the  term  of  their  lives  of  a longer 
or  shorter  duration. 

The  cocoon  is  usually  an  inch  and  a third  in  length, 
of  an  oval  form ; the  color  yellow,  or  straw,  or  pure 
white.  The  outer  covering  is  like  finest  wool,  and  is 
called  flos,  and  is  easily  detached  ; this  being  removed, 
the  end  of  a thread  is  discovered,  of  extreme  fineness. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  SILK-WORM. 


19 


After  an  interval  of  from  15  to  20  days  repose,  the 
moth  ejects  from  its  moutli  a liquor,  which  moistens 
the  gum  and  dissolves  the  adhesiveness  of  the  texture 
of  the  ball,  and  by  frequent  motions  of  its  head,  it 
loosens  and  forces  aside  the  filaments,  without  sunder- 
ing a single  silken  thread,  until  it  reappears,  transform- 
ed to  a large  butterfly,  of  a greyisli  white  color,  with 
four  wings,  two  eyes,  and  two  black  feathery  horns  or 
plumes.  Unshrouded,  in  this  its  last  and  perfect  form, 
both  male  and  female,  they  come  forth  to  the  light  of 
day  : from  this  time  they  take  no  visible  food  to  the  day 
of  their  death. 

They  commence  laying  their  eggs  in  twenty-four  or 
thirty-six  hours  after  leaving  the  cocoon.  Each  female 
usually  lays  four  hundred  eggs,  which  firmly  adhere  to 
the  paper,  on  which  they  are  arranged  in  a handsome 
and  circular  form.  In  a few  days  after,  their  multifa- 
rious labors  being  ended,  the  insect  dies. 

The  silkworm  remains  in  the  chrysalis  state  a length 
of  time  corresponding  with  the  temperature  of  the  cli- 
mate. In  England  they  remain  30  days.  In  France 
21,  in  Spain  and  Italy  18  or  20;  in  the  United  States 
about  the  same,  and  in  India  but  11  days. 

The  silk-worm,  like  other  caterpillars,  is  a cold- 
blooded insect,  its  temperature  that  of  the  atmosphere 
in  which  it  breathes.  Sudden  changes  from  cold  to 
heat  are  highly  injurious  ; yet  it  has  been  found  that  the 
silk-worm  is  capable  of  enduring  a great  degree  of  heat 
if  uniformly  maintained.  Such  a degree  they  must  at 
times  endure  in  their  own  native  forests,  not  only  of 
light,  but  also  of  heat,  with  no  shelter  from  the  scorch- 
ing sun  but  the  shadow  of  a leaf.  Yet  in  no  case  is  a 
due  degree  of  warmth  more  needful,  than  while  the 
insect  is  forming  the  cocoon.  If  at  anytime  while  they 
are  performing  this  most  important  labor,  they  are  per- 
mitted to  suffer  from  cold,  they  cease  from  their  labors, 
and  remain  inactive,  or  move  but  slowly,  as  may  be  dis- 
cerned while  the  cocoons  are  yet  transparent.  It  has 


20 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


been  proved,  on  dissection  of  the  silk-worms  which  thus 
suffer  and  become  torpid  through  cold,  that  the  gluti- 
nous matter  in  their  silk  reservoirs  had  become  so  con- 
gealed and  tenacious,  from  cold,  as  to  resemble  strong 
tendons  ; which  sufficiently  accounted  for  the  inability 
of  the  insect  to  draw  forth  the  silken  filament.  Yet  no 
sooner  is  the  temperature  increased,  than  they  will  re- 
sume their  labors  with  increased  activity;  but  will  again 
desist,  if  exposed  again  to  cold.  If  neglected  at  this 
critical  period,  they  assume  in  due  time,  the  chrysalis 
form,  but  for  want  of  sufficient  strength,  leave  incom- 
plete their  silken  tomb. 

Many  persons  have  erroneously  imagined,  that  light 
is  injurious  to  the  silk-worms:  but  the  very  reverse  of  a 
belief  so  contrary  to  nature,  is  evidently  true.  In  its 
native  state,  it  is  of  course  habituated  to  the  most  per- 
fect light.  Indeed  a due  proportion  of  the  reviving 
light  of  day  has  been  found  essentially  necessary  to  its 
perfect  health.  In  the  perfect  light  of  day,  the  leaves 
of  the  mulberry  and  other  trees  exhale  vital  air,  or  that 
pure,  aetherial  substance  which,  by  being  inhaled,  gives 
life  and  heat  to  the  animal  system,  and  fuel  to  flame; 
while  in  the  darkness  they  evolve  mephitic  air,  which  is 
destructive  and  incapable  of  affording  nourishment  either 
to  life  or  to  flame. 

Although  the  silk-worm  will  endure  a great  degree  of 
heat,  yet  when  this  heat  is  combined  with  excessive 
moisture,  the  effect  appears  to  be  at  least  as  deleterious 
to  the  insects  as  mephitic  air.  If  a silk-worm  be  con- 
fined in  a close  vessel  surcharged  with  moisture,  and 
heated  to  88  deg.  or  99  deg.,  it  will  soon  reject  food,  and 
shew  strong  symptoms  of  distress.  The  muscles  will 
soften,  and  evaporation  will  become  obstructed : the 
power  of  contraction  which  resides  in  the  skin,  and 
which  governs  the  secretions  which  are  indispensably 
necessary  to  its  existence,  will  cease,  and  it  will  shortly 
perish  : while  a warmblooded  animal,  if  sufficiently 
supplied  with  pure  atmospheric  air,  will  endure  an  equal 


HISTORY  OF  THE  SILK-WORM. 


21 


degree  of  heat  combined  with  an  equal  degree  of  mois- 
ture, with  but  little  inconvenience. 

But  if  a silk-worm  be  introduced  into  a jar  charged 
with  carbonic  acid  gas  which  would  cause  a bird  or  any 
other  warm-blooded  animal  to  die  instantly,  although 
the  worm  w'ill  soon  exhibit  signs  of  suffering,  yet  it  will 
live  from  ten  to  tw'enty  minutes,  and,  on  being  with- 
drawn from  the  receiver  in  due  time,  it  will  exhibit  no 
signs  of  injury,  but  be  apparently  as  healthy  as  before. 
The  silk-worm  will  also  live  for  some  minutes  in  water, 
especially  in  the  early  stages  of  its  existence  ; it  seems 
indeed  to  possess  the  faculty  of  disengaging  vital  air 
from  the  water,  and  even  when  apparently  dead,  it  will 
revive  on  being  taken  out  again.  But  if,  instead  of  be- 
ing plunged  into  water  or  into  mephitic  air,  its  eighteen 
breathing  holes  be  closed  up  with  grease,  it  dies  in- 
stantly. 

Some  have  supposed  that  noise  disconcerts  them  ; 
but  this  appears  to  be  a mistake,  as  has  been  proved  in 
France,  by  the  Abbe  Rosier  and  M.  Thome,  who  made 
the  experiment  of  discharging  pistols  in  the  apartments 
where  the  silk-worms  w^ere  kept,  which  they  regarded 
not.  Neither  are  they  in  the  least  affected  or  annoyed 
by  the  barking  of  dogs,  or  by  concerts  of  music,  or  the 
noise  and  bustle  of  cities,  even  while  spinning,  or  when 
about  ascending,  preparatory  to  this  last  work.  Thun- 
der, indeed,  has  sometimes  the  effect  of  producing  a 
temporary  suspension  of  their  labors,  while  the  insect 
is  completely  immersed  and  insulated  in  its  silken  cell  ; 
or,  at  other  times,  of  causing  some  of  the  most  feeble 
to  fall;  but  this  is  rather  to  be  ascribed  to  the  sudden 
shock  or  concussion  which  is  produced  upon  the  earth 
and  atmosphere,  by  a heavy  clap  of  thunder  : also  to 
the  extreme  lassitude  and  sense  of  oppression,  which 
the  silk-worms  must  necessarily  suffer,  filled  as  they  are 
with  a fluid  as  highly  electrical  as  silk  : and  to  this, 
being  also  superadded,  an  atmosphere,  overcharged  with 
the  electrical  elements,  until,  by  the  silent  operation  of 


22 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


the  conductor,  or  by  loud  and  spontaneous  bursts,  the 
warring  elements  have  fully  discharged  the  arsenal  of 
their  fiery  wrath,  and  the  equilibrium  is  restored. 


SECTION  III. 

VARIETIES  OF  SILK-WORMS. 

1.  Besides  the  kind  of  silk-worm  already  described, 
there  is  a kind,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  I have  ever 
seen  ; these  are  of  a pure  white,  and  their  cocoons  are 
also  very  beautiful,  and  of  a snowy  whiteness.  Pos- 
sibly this  may  be  the  identical  China  silk-worm,  which 
produces  silk  of  a superior  quality,  and  which,  accord- 
ing to  one  account,  was  brought  to  France  about  thirty 
years  ago. 

2.  There  is  a variety  of  silk-worm  which  was  intro- 
duced from  China  into  France  about  50  years  ago,  but 
which  has  not  been  much  cultivated  until  the  last  30 
years.  These  are  much  prized  by  Count  Dandolo,  who 
has  raised  many  of  this  kind,  and  prefers  them  to  all 
others.  They  cast  their  skins  but  thrice,  and  product 
silk  of  a white  color.  He  recommends  to  make  choice 
constantly  only  of  the  very  finest  and  whitest  cocoons 
to  prevent  a degeneracy. 

3.  There  is  a variety  of  silk-worm  from  Italy,  w'hich, 
when  fully  grown,  is  but  three-fifths  of  the  ordinary 
weight  and  size,  and  the  quantity  of  food  consumed  is 
in  the  same  proportion.  The  cocoons  are  also  of  pro- 
portionably  diminished  size.  These  are  by  some  pre- 
ferred, as  the  silk  which  they  afford  is  very  fine  and 
beautiful,  and  in  greater  proportion  than  other  cocoons, 
according  to  their  weight.  Each  cocoon  of  this  species 
affords  over  2 1-10  grairi«  of  silk,  and  measures  on  the 
average  but  a fraction  short  of  400  yards.  It  requires 


HISTORY  OF  THE  SILK-WORM. 


23 


400  cocoons  to  weigh  a pound,  and  4363  are  required 
to  afford  a pound  of  pore  silk. 

4.  Silk-ioorin  of  Two  Crops.  In  Windham,  Conn, 
they  have  a small  pale  white  worm,  which  agrees  in 
many  particulars  with  both  of  the  foregoing ; if  this,  and 
each  one  of  thein,  are  not  one  and  all  identically  the 
same.  This  silk-worm  goes  through  its  various  muta- 
tions in  20  days,  and  produces  fine  white  silk,  which 
has  the  valuable  property  of  retaining  its  clear  white 
color.  The  worms  produce  two  crops,  though  the 
quantity  is  less  than  that  produced  by  the  large  dark 
colored,  or  by  the  large  white  worm. 

5.  Silk-ivorm  of  eight  crops^  or  Dacey.  At  the  silk  es- 
tablishment of  the  British  East  India  Company  at 
Jungepore,  in  Bengal,  besides  the  common  silkworm, 
which  produces  but  a single  crop  annually,  they  have 
also  another  silk-worm,  called  Dacey,  which  produces 
eight  crops  or  harvests,  and  is  supposed  to  be  indigenous. 

6.  Friuli  Silk-ioorvis.  There  is  a variety  of  silk- 
worms found  in  Friuli,  so  very  large,  that  two  of  these, 
when  fully  grown,  will  outweigh  five  of  the  common 
kind  ; and  their  cocoons  weigh  almost  in  the  same  propor- 
tion. The  quantity  of  food  is  1-10  less  in  proportion  to 
the  weight  of  cocoons  produced,  than  the  common 
kind,  but  they  require  five  or  six  days  longer  in  their 
evolutions  before  they  begin  to  spin.  Their  cocoons 
are  four  times  as  heavy,  as  those  of  the  small  variety  of 
silk-worm.  Each  cocoon  yields  nearly  8 1-2  grains,  and 
measures  almost  1300  yards;  and  100  cocoons  weigh 
a pound,  and  1091  will  yield  a pound  of  pure  reeled 
silk.  Friuli  silk  is  said  to  cause  more  trouble  and 
waste  in  its  manufacture,  than  that  of  either  France  or 
Lombardy.  This  may  be  owing,  either  to  the  breed  of 
silk-worms,  or  what  is  much  more  probable,  to  its  being 
imperfectly  reeled. 


24 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


OTHER  VARIETIES  OF  SILK-WORMS. 

Besides  the  variety  of  silk-worms  already  described, 
there  are  several  other  species,  which  are  highly  de- 
serving of  the  attention  of  all  who  would  enter  on  the 
cultivation  of  silk. 

For  an  account  of  the  two  following  kinds  of  silk- 
worms, which  are  described  as  peculiar  to  Hindoostan,  I 
am  indebted  to  the  researches  of  Gen.  Dearborn,  who 
has  described  them  from  Milhuni^s  Oriental  Commerce, 

7.  Arrindy  Silk-worm. — This  silk-worm  is  a species 
totally  different  from  any  hitherto  described  or  known  ; 
and  is  called  Arrindy  from  the  name  of  the  plant,  the  Hi 
cinus  or  Palmi  Christi  on  which  the  insect  feeds.  It  is 
peculiar  to  the  districts  of  Dinagepore  and  Rangpore  in 
the  interior  of  Bengal,  where  it  is  reared  by  the  natives 
in  a domestic  state  as  they  do  other  silk-worms.  The 
Palmi  Christi  is  largely  cultivated  in  India,  as  it  is  also 
in  many  parts  of  France  and  some  other  countries,  for 
the  abundant  produce  of  oil  which  is  obtained  from  its 
seeds,  which  is  knowm  in  commerce  as  the  Castor  oil. 
This  plant  is  therefore  cultivated  for  the  double  use  of 
seeds,  and  also  of  its  leaves. 

The  cocoons  thus  produced,  are  remarkably  soft,  and 
white  or  yellowish,  and  the  filament  is  so  exceeding 
delicate,  that  it  cannot  be  wound,  as  are  other  cocoons, 
but  must  be  spun  like  cotton.  The  cloth  woven  of  this 
substance,  is  white,  coarse,  and  of  a seemingly  loose 
texture,  but  of  incredible  durability.  It  is  used  for  the 
clothing  of  botli  men  and  women,  and  will  wear  con- 
stantly for  ten,  fifteen  or  twenty  years.  The  merchants 
also  use  it  for  packing  fine  cloths,  shawls'  and  silks. 
Hot  water  dissolves  its  texture,  causing  it  to  tear  ; it  is 
therefore  washed  only  in  cold  water.  The  Palmi  Chris- 
ti flourishes  most  luxuriantly  in  all  the  states  of  the 
south,  and  in  the  latitude  of  Boston. 

8.  Tusseh,  or  Wild  Silk-ioorm  of  India.  This  is 


CLIMATE,  SHELTER,  ETC. 


25 


a s|3ecies  of  silk-worm  which  cannot  be  domesticated. 
They  are  so  abundant  in  many  parts  of  Bengal,  and  the 
provinces  adjoining,  as  to  have  afforded  to  the  natives 
of  those  countries,  and  particularly  to  theBramins,  froiTi 
time  immemorial,  considerable  supplies  of  a most  du^ 
rable,  coarse,  dark  colored  silk,  which  is  woven  into  a 
fabrick  called  Tusi^cli-dootie. 

This  species  of  silk-worm,  might,  it  is  supposed,  prove 
highly  useful  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
and  also  of  the  southern  states  of  America,  where  a 
cheap,  light,  cool  and  durable  dress  is  much  wanted  : 
such  a dress  as  this  silk  affords,  and  such  as  is  worn  by 
the  Bramins  of  India.  Once  introduced,  they  would 
probably  flourish,  unaided  by  the  care,  and  undisturbed 
by  the  attentions  of  rnan, 


SECTION  IV. 

CLLMATE,  SHELTER,  ETC. 

Wherever  the  mulberry  finds  a congenial  climate 
and  soil,  there  also,  the  silk-worm  will  flourish.  Such 
a climate  and  soil,  and  such  a country  is  ours,  through- 
out its  whole  extent,  from  its  Eastern  to  its  Western 
shores.  The  silk-worm  requires  a pura  atmosphere  for 
the  preservation  of  its  health.  It  has  been  proved  in 
Toulouse  in  France,  that  the  silk-worms  raised  in  the 
huts  of  the  poor  peasants,  and  enjoying  the  pure  air 
through  cracks  and  broken  windows,  Avere  from  this 
cause  alone,  more  productive  than  those  which  were 
reared  in  the  houses  of  the  rich  in  the  city. 

The  silk-worm  is  a native  of  China.  From  Chi- 
na, also,  we  derive  the  Morns  alha  or  White  muU 
3 


26 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


berry j and  the  new  Black  Chinese  Mulberry  or  Morns 
rimliicaulis,  these  being  two  of  the  main  varieties  on  which 
the  insect  feeds.  The  silk-worm  is  by  no  means  so  del- 
icate as  many  may  imagine.  Mr.  Cobb  ‘‘  saw  the  in- 
sects raised  by  Mr.  D’Homergue  in  a yard  of  mulberry 
trees  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  which  endured  cold, 
windy  days,  and  storms  of  rain  and  thunder  ; a few  of 
which,  notwithstanding,  spun  in  thirty  days,  and  pro-* 
duced  excellent  cocoons.”  At  Northampton,  also,  which 
is  a village  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  great  northern 
artery  of  the  river  Connecticut,  the  eggs  of  the  silk- 
worm which  had  been  deposited  on  the  outside  of  a 
window  frame,  remained  uninjured  and  hatched  well, 
although  they  had  endured  alternate  sunshine,  and  cold 
winds  and  storms,  and  the  extreme  rigors  of  the  uncom- 
mon winter  of  1834-5,  and  a degree  of  cold  33  deg. 
below  zero. 

Change  of  climate  affects  the  breed  of  silk-worms  for 
a time,  whether  such  changes  are  from  cold  to  heat,  or 
from  heat  to  cold  ; but  of  the  two,  it  is  better  that  they 
should  be  brought  from  a colder  climate  rather  than 
from  one  which  is  warmer. 

A shelter,  however,  is  necessary  for  the  silk-worm ; 
alike  to  defend  from  long  and  fatal  storms,  and  from 
their  enemies,  the  innumerable  and  otherwise  useful 
birds  of  prey. 


SECTION  V, 

MULBERRY.  (MeRus.) 

The  mulberry,  or  morns  of  the  botanists,  is  a genus 
comprising  many  species.  It  derives  its  name  from  Mor^ 
in  Celtic,  black.  ItsWigin  has  been  assigned  to  China, 


MULBERRY, 


27 


but  several  species  have  been  found  growing  in  a wild 
state  in  America.  It  was  cultivated  at  a very  early  pe-^ 
riod  of  time  in  Western  Asia  and  in  Europe,  but  only 
for  its  fruit.  The  fruit  is  a berry  of  a roundish  or  ob-. 
long  form ; of  a color  varying  from  white  to  red  or 
black;  its  pulp  envelopes  numerous  small  seeds. 

Uses.  Most  of  the  varieties  of  the  mulberry  are  es-^ 
teemed  dessert  fruits.  When  perfectly  mature,  they  are 
grateful  to  the  taste,  and  very  wholesome;  the  syrup  is 
useful  in  mitigating  inflammation  of  the  throat.  The 
juice  when  properly  fermented,  affords  a pleasant  vinous 
wine;  mixed  with  apples,  they  afford  a delicious  bever- 
age called  mulberry  cider ^ of  a deep  red  color  like  Port 
wine. 

The  wood  of  the  mulberry  tree  is  compact,  elastic 
and  hard,  and  susceptible  of  a fine  polish  ; it  is  therefore 
sought  after  by  the  upholsterer,  the  carver  and  the  turner. 
The  strength  of  the  timber  renders  it  valuable  to  the 
joiner,  and  also  for  building  boats  : its  power  of  resisting 
the  action  of  water,  has  been  compared  to  oak. 

The  roots  of  the  mulberry  tree  are  of  a yellow  color, 
and  strike  downward ; and  the  tree  is  extremely  long 
lived.  M.  de  Saint  Fond  saw  in  1802,  one  of  the  ori-^ 
ginal  or  parent  trees,  of  all  the  white  mulberry  trees  of 
France,  which  the  followers  of  Charles  VIII.  had 
brought  from  Italy,  on  his  invasion  of  that  country  in 
1494.  M.  Lachaux  had  caused  this  tree  to  be  encom-» 
passed  by  a wall,  to  evince  his  respect  and  veneration, 
and  to  serve  as  a monument  to  a tree  so  inestimable. 

Whoever  would  enter  extensively  and  at  once  on  the 
cultivation  of  silk,  let  them  first  of  all  bestow  their  at- 
tention on  the  culture  of  the  abundant  supplies  of  food  ■; 
this  principal  and  essential  food  being  no  other  than  the 
material  leaves  of  the  various  species  of  the  mulberry 
tree.  Not  every  kind  however  is  equally  suitable.  Liri- 
n2eus  has  enumerated  seven  species  of  those  which  were 
known  in  his  day  : and  amongst  these,  there  are  two 
species,  the  Tinctora  and  Indica,  which  are  not  used  as 


•28 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


the  food  of  the  silk-worm.  Those  most  esteemed  and 
known  are  the  3foriis  Alba,  or  Common  White  Mul- 
berry, and  the  Morus  Multicaulis^  or  Chinese  Mulberry, 
This  last  named  is  black. 

The  nourishment  which  is  contained  in  the  mulberry 
leaf  is  not  completely  developed  till  the  leaf  is  fully 
grown.  The  leaf,  according  to  the  analysis  of  Count 
Dandolo,  contains — 1.  The  fibrous  substance  ; 2.  The 
coloring  matter;  3.  Water;  4.  The  saccharine  sub- 
stance ; 5.  The  resinous  substance.  The  saccharine 

substance  is  that  which  nourishes  the  insect,  augmenting 
its  growth  and  size,  The  resinous  substance,  is  that 
which,  ‘‘separating  itself  gradually  from  the  leaf  and  at- 
tracted by  the  animal  organization,  accumulates,  cleans 
itself,  and  insensibly  fills  the  two  reservoirs  or  silk  ves- 
sels.’’ The  proportion  of  this  nutriment  depends  on  the 
variety  of  the  mulberry,  the  age,  the  soil,  and  the  moist- 
ure or  dryness  of  the  season. 


SECTION  VI. 

VARIETIES. 

BLACK  MULBERRY.  (Moiius  nigra.) 

A TREE  which  rises  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet — 
a native  of  Asia  Minor.  The  leaves  are  large  and  rug- 
ged. Its  fruit  is  large,  black,  aromatic,  juicy,  subacid 
and  good.  An  agreeable  wine  is  made  from  its  juice. 
The  juice  is  used  for  imparting  a dark  color  to  liquors  ; 
the  bark  of  the  black  mulberry  is  a powerful  cathartic  ; 
and  from  the  bark  of  the  tree,  strong  cordage  and  brown 
paper  is  made.  The  leaves  will  answer  for  the  food  of 
the  silk-worms,  and  arb  much  used  in  Persia  and  also  in 
Granada,  and  it  is  supposed  hy  them  that  the  black  mul- 


JAPAN  PAPER  MULBEPvRY. 


29 


berry  produces  a double  quantity  of  foliage.  Other  va- 
rieties however  are  known,  which  have  obtained  a prefer- 
ence over  the  Morns  nigra. 


SECTION  VII. 

RED  MULBERRY.  (Morus  rubra.) 

A NATivn  of  America.  The  tree  rises  to  the  height 
of  from  thirty  to  forty  feet ; the  leaves  large,  cordate, 
often  palmated,  and  more  often  three  lobed,  but  usually 
entire,  dark  green  above,  downy  beneath,  rugged.  The 
fruit  is  of  a very  deep  red  or  black  color  and  excellent. 
This  variety  is  esteemed  superior  to  the  black  mulberry 
as  a fruit,  and  the  tree  is  more  hardy.  The  leaves  may 
be  used  in  feeding  silk-worms,  but  they  are  of  an  inferior 
quality  for  this  purpose,  when  compared  with  the  com- 
mon white  mulberry,  or  the  new  Chinese  black  mulberry, 
otherwise  called  the  Morus  multicaulis,  and  some  other 
species. 


SECTION  VIII. 

JAPAN  PAPER  MULBERRY.  (Broussonetia  papyrifera.) 

The  tree  is  of  rapid  growth,  and  rises  to  a large  size, 
with  around  head  ; the  leaves  are  rough,  either  cordate, 
entire,  lobed  or  palmated.  It  is  a native  of  China  and 
Japan,  and  the  liber  or  inner  bark,  by  being  beaten  to 
render  it  pliable,  serves  for  paper  and  as  an  article  of 
clothing  in  those  countries.  The  fruit  is  round  and  cu- 
rious, but  not  edible.  The  leaves  are  eaten  by  the  silk- 
worms; and  for  this  purpose,  it  is  now  successfully  cul- 
tivated in  France. 


30 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


A beautiful  vegetable  silk  is  procured  from  the  bark 
of  the  young  branches  of  the  pap^rifera,  as  has  been 
proved  by  M.  la  Rouverie.  He  directs  that  the  bark  be 
separated)  while  the  tree  is  in  full  sap,  and  beaten  with 
mallets  and  steeped  in  water,  by  which  process  he  af- 
firms fibres  are  obtained  almost  equal  to  silk  in  quality, 
and  which,  when  woven,  form  a cloth  whose  texture  re- 
sembles silk. 


SECTION  IX. 

SHINING  LEAVED  MULBERRY.  (Morus  lucida  ) 

The  leaves  are  very  large,  pointed,  cordate  and  shiii->- 
ing.  This  variety  is  said  to  be  highly  deserving  of  cul- 
tivation for  the  nourishment  of  silk-worms. 


SECTION  X. 

TARTAREAN  MULBERRY.  (Morus  tartarica.) 

This  mulberry  is  from  the  environs  of  Asoph,  and 
abounds  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga  and  Tanais.  The 
leaves  are  large,  oval,  oblong,  serrated,  shining.  They 
afford  silk  of  the  first  quality,  and  are  fully  equal  to 
those  of  the  white  mulberry  or  the  black.  The  fruit  re- 
sembles the  morns  nigra. 


SECTION  XI. 

CANTON  MULBERRY. 

\ 

A valuable  species  from  China.  The  leaves  are  very 
large,  cordate,  pointed,  entire;  the  leaves  grow  erect. 


WHITE  ITALIAN  MULBERRY. 


31 


having  a plain  surface  of  a beautiful  shining  green. 
They  produce  silk  of  the  first  quality.  The  tree  is  of 
rapid  growth,  and  said  to  be  hardy,  as  they  endured  well 
the  winter  of  1835-6,  as  is  asserted  by  Dr.  Stebbins. 


SECTION  XII. 

WHITE  ITALIAN  MULBERRY.  (Morus  alba  sinensis.) 

The  white  mulberry  is  a native  of  China,  but  for 
centuries  naturalized  in  Italy,  and  is  therefore  called 
the  Italian.  A tree  of  rapid  growth  and  extensively 
known  for  the  uses  of  its  leaf  as  the  food  of  silk-worms. 
The  leaves  are  pointed,  cordate,  serrate,  entire,  or 
lobed,  but  vary  in  the  different  sub-varieties,  sometimes 
even  in  the  same  tree  in  different  ages;  being  at  times 
lobed  when  young,  but  when  old  entire.  The  bark  of 
the  wood  is  of  an  ash  color;  the  fruit  is  white,  roundish 
oblong,  of  an  insipid  taste.  The  tree  as  before  noted, 
is  valuable  for  its  timber,  and  exceedingly  long  lived. 

In  cold  climates  it  grows  more  slowly  ; yet  its  growth  is 
more  rapid,  and  it  comes  into  leaf  earlier  than  the  mortis 
nigra,  and  is  not,  like  that  variety,  incommoded  by  a 
profusion  of  fruit.  And  although  the  black  mulberry 
may  be  preferred  in  Persia,  Count  Dandolo  affirms,  that 
the  white  mulberry  was  found  to  produce  the  finest  silk 
of  the  kinds  known  in  Italy.  It  is  also  affirmed,  that  if 
the  leaves  of  this  species,  and  those  of  the  Riihra  and 
31.  nigra  be  presented  to  the  insect  at  the  same  time,  it 
will  eat  first  of  the  white,  next  of  the  red,  and  last  of  all 
of  the  hlack.  In  Malta  the  white  mulberry  grows  much 
more  rapidly  than  in  Italy  ; but  in  India,  where  the  mul- 
berry tree  is  an  evergreen,  its  growth  is  so  rapid  that 
large  quantities  are  sown  and  mowm  in  the  same  season, 
and  from  these,  sprouts  are  again  produced  for  a second 
brood  of  silk-worms. 


32 


SILK  GROWER  S GUIDE. 


Varieties  are  known  in  silk  countries,  which  are  pro- 
duced from  the  white  mulberry,  and  are  only  to  be  ex- 
tended by  layers  or  by  grafting.  Of  these.  Count  Dan- 
dolo  prefers  those  which  in  Lombardy  are  called  Folia 
Giazzola,  and  Folia  Doppia.  Other  varieties  of  es- 
teemed kinds,  are  the  Rose  leaved,  the  Roman,  the 
Spanish,  and  the  Small  Queen;  all  being  sub-varieties  of 
the  white. 

Theltos^?  leaved  he3.Ys  roundish  leaves,  of  large  size, 
and  resembling  in  form  tiie  leaves  of  the  rose.  The 
Roman  leaf  distinguished  from  others,  by  its  very 
large  leaves,  some  of  which  are  of  the  size  of  those  of 
the  20urd.  The  Spanish  has  a leaf  which  much  resem- 
bles  those  of  the  Wild  Rose  Mulberry,*  except  being 
larger,  and  more  pointed,  and  is  extremely  hardy.  Those 
of  the  Small  Queen  are  oblong,  tolerable  large,  and  of 
excellent  quality. 

The  bark  according  to  Rosier,  may  be  converted  into 
linen  of  the  fineness  of  silk.  For  this  purpose,  the 
young  wood  is  gathered  in  autumn,  during  the  ascent  of 
the  second  sap,  and  immersed  for  three  or  four  days  in 
still  water.  It  is  then  taken  out  at  sunset,  spread  on 
grass,  and  returned  to  the  water  at  sunrise,  and  this  daily 
repeated,  and  finally  it  is  prepared  and  spun  like  flax. 

Other  fine  varieties  which  are  believed  to  belong  to 
the  same  species. 

Moynis  Alba  GiazzoJa, 

Feuilles  de  Parchemin. 

Roman  Dura. 

Nervosa. 

Other  varieties  have  been  recommended,  as  one  from 
Italy  called  Alpine,  and  another  from  Constantinople 
called  Broussa,  and  the  morus  expansa,  which  seems  to 
be  identical  with  the  Roman  dura ; also  the  moretti  or 
morettiana. 


CHINESE  MULBEKKY, 


33 


SECTION  XIII. 

MORETTIANA  MULBERRY. 

This  new  and  most  valuable  species  of  mulberry  was 
first  discovered  about  the  year  1815,  by  M.  Moretti, 
Professor  in  the  University  of  Pavia,  and  from  a single 
young  tree,  he  had  in  1826,  multiplied  them  to  120,000. 
The  leaf  is  ovate,  sharp  pointed,  entire,  cordate  at  the 
base.  It  is  thin,  smooth  on  the  under  and  especially 
on  the  upper  surface,  which  is  of  a beautiful  and  rather 
deep  shining  green  ; it  is  not  near  so  thick  as  that  of 
the  large  white  mulberry,  called  in  France  the  Admirable^ 
and  is  thinner  than  those  of  the  Spanish  mulberry  (Mo~ 
riis  nigra.)  It  is  neither  wrinkled  nor  plaited.  It  is 
in  general  nearly  eight  inches  wide,  and  ten  inches 
long.  The  fruit,  which  is  at  first  violet,  becomes  at 
maturity  perfectly  black,  but  is  sometimes  irliite.  This 
mulberry  will  be  most  profitably  cultivated  in  the  form 
of  a hedge,  and  from  the  superior  size  of  the  leaf  they 
are  gathered  with  the  greatest  facility.  Its  superior 
quality  has  been  proved  by  the  experiments  of  M.  Gera 
and  Count  Dandolo,  who  assert  that  they  produce  silk 
of  a more  beautiful  gloss  and  finer  quality  than  com- 
mon silk. 


SECTION  XIV. 

CHINESE  MULBERRY.  (Morus  nigra  sinensis.) 
Morus  Multicaulis.  {Many  stalked  Mulberry .) 

Morus  Culcallata. 

Perrottet  Mulberry. 

For  the  first  knowledge  of  the  history  of  this  plant, 
the  American  public  are  indebted  to  the  laborious  and 


34 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


unwearied  researches  of  the  Hon.  H.  A.  S.  Dearborn  : 
and  the  first  complete  history  and  account  of  this  plant, 
from  the  Annales  d’Horticulture,”  and  the  ‘‘Anna- 
les  Royal  Horticole  de  Fromont:”  was  communicated 
to  the  public  from  his  luminous  pen  : even  before  the 
plant  was  known  by  name  in  this  section  of  the  country. 
I am  happy  in  thus  being  enabled  to  ascribe  honor, 
where  honor  is  so  justly  due.  To  the  introduction  of 
this  plant,  more  than  to  any  other  cause,  is  to  be  ascrib- 
ed the  awakening  and  mighty  impulse  to  the  cause  of 
silk  in  this  decisive  day.  [See  the  various  communica- 
tions of  Gen,  Dearborn  in  Vols,  VIII  and  IX  of  the 
New  England  Farmer  for  1830  and  1831.]  From 
this  history  chiefly,  and  from  all  other  sources,  as  well  as 
from  much  personal  knowledge  of  the  plant,  I have 
embodied  the  following  account. 

The  silk-worms,  and  the  plants  whereon  they  most 
delight  to  feed,  are  the  natives  of  China.  These,  the 
common  white  Mulberry^  which  is  sometimes,  though 
improperly  called  the  Italian,  and  the  Morus  Multicau^ 
Us,  all  being  alike  the  natives  of  the  same  climate  and 
country. 

The  Morus  Multicaulis  is  also  called,  by  way  of  ex- 
cellence, the  Chinese  Mulberry  ; a tree  of  surpassing 
beauty  ; a new  and  most  valuable  variety  for  the  nour- 
ishment of  silk-worms  ; a tree  which  is  represented  as 
possessing  such  decided  superiority  over  all  others,  that 
it  will  speedily  be  substituted  for  them  all,  in  every  region 
of  the  globe. 

Of  all  the  varieties  of  mulberries  for  silk,  the  Chi- 
nese mulberry  or  Morus  Multicaidis  appears  that  which 
is  most  eminently  adapted  to  our  wants.  It  originated 
in  the  elevated  regions  of  China,  a country  famous  from 
antiquity  for  its  silk  and  renowned  for  its  industry  ; a 
parallel  only  to  our  own,  in  its  climates  and  divers  lati- 
tudes. It  is  to  this  tr^e,  that  the  disciples  of  Confu- 


CHINESE  MULBERRY. 


35 


cius  acknowledge  their  indebtedness  for  the  prosperity 
and  solidity  of  their  empire. 

The  tree  grows  vigorous,  upright,  and  beautiful  ; the 
leaves  large,  soft,  and  tender,  are  petiolate,  cordate, 
acuminate,  serrated  towards  the  summit,  marked  wdth 
nerves,  always  entire;  their  upper  surface  is  convex  or 
curled,  of  a deep  and  beautiful  shining  green.  The 
form  and  dimensions  of  the  leaf  vary  in  different  soils. 
In  a dry  and  arid  soil  they  are  of  diminished  size,  their 
form  elliptical,  and  without  the  heart-shaped  indenta- 
tion at  the  base,  their  breadth  being  six  inches,  and 
their  length  eight;  but  in  a light,  rich,  and  friable  soil, 
the  produce  of  the  foliage  is  most  abundant,  the  leaves 
large  and  cordiform,  extraordinary  ^yccirnens  having 
sometimes  measured  more  than  a foot  in  breadth,  and 
fifteen  inches  in  length. 

Each  male  flower  has  a calyx  of  four  concave,  oval, 
membranous  leaflets ; four  stamens,  with  filaments  ac- 
companied with  a tridentate  appendage  ; anthers  sagit- 
tate, bilocular.  Each  female  has  an  ovary,  terminated 
by  two  divergent  styles;  the  ovary  is  unilocular,  con* 
taining  a single  pendant  seed,  which  is  frequently  blast- 
ed or  imperfect.” 

It  is  sometimes  called  the  Perrottet  mulberry,  in  hon- 
or of  Perrottet,  Agricultural  Botanist,  and  Travel- 
ler of  the  Marine  and  Colonies  of  France,  who  has  in- 
troduced this  plant  to  Europe.  M.  Perrottet  had  been 
sent  out  by  the  government  of  France  on  a voyage  of 
botanical  research,  a national  ship  having  been  provided 
especially  for  his  use.  It  was  first  discovered  by  him  at 
Manilla,  the  capital  of  the  Philippine  islands,  whither  it 
had  been  brought  by  the  Chinese  from  China,  as  a tree 
of  ornament  as  well  as  of  eminent  usefulness.  The 
Chinese  are  justly  entitled  to  the  credit  of  its  introduc- 
tion hither,  as  to  all  the  islands  of  the  Asiatic  archi- 


36 


SILK  GROWEe’s  guide. 


pel  ."go,  where  from  motives  of  industry,  they  have  en- 
deavored to  increase  and  to  multiply  it,  that  it  might  be 
rendered  useful  to  them  in  the  new  country  of  their 
adoption. 

From  Manilla  the  Moms  midticauiis  was  first  intro- 
duced by  M.  Perrottet  to  the  Isle  of  Bourbon,  and  from 
thence  into  Cayenne,  and  finally  it  was  brought  by  him 
to  France  in  1821,  in  that  vast  collection  and  variety  of 
productions,  which  he  had  during  thirty-four  months 
procured  in  the  seas  of  Asia,  or  gathered  on  the  coast 
or  in  the  lands  of  Guiana.  At  first,  however,  its  cultiva- 
tion in  France  was  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the 
Royal  Gardens,  that  its  trial  and  dissemination  might  be 
thus  rendered  the  more  efiectual  and  complete  through- 
out every  department  of  the  country.  At  a later  period 
it  was  sent  from  Cayenne  to  Martinique,  and  from 
France  to  Guadaloupe,  also  to  Senegal.  The  numerous 
plants  which  are  already  disseminated  in  the  divers  cli- 
mates of  Africa,  America  and  Europe,  liave  all  been 
produced  by  the  two  individual  plants  which  were 
brought  by  M.  Perrottet  from  Manilla. 

The  Moms  multicaidis  differs  from  all  others,  in  the 
uncommon  vigor  of  its  growth,  and  the  property  which 
the  roots  possess  of  throwing  up  numerous  flexible 
stalks;  the  great  length  which  these  stalks  acquire  in  a 
short  space  of  time,  and  the  facility  with  which  it  is 
propagated  from  layers,  or  even  from  cuttings;  also, 
from  the  remarkable  size  which  the  thin,  soft,  and  ten- 
der leaves  speedily  acquire,  and  the  promptitude  with 
which  they  are  renewed.  The  fruit,  which  was  un- 
known even  in  France  till  183D,  is  long,  black,  and  of 
appearance  sufficiently  beautiful ; its  flavor  good,  being 
intermediate  between  that  of  the  Red  and  that  of  the 
Black  Mulberry.  The  silk  which  the  worms  form  from 
the  food  afforded  by  this  plant  is  not  only  of  the  finest 
quality,  but  the  cocoons  are  of  unusual  size,  and  the 
fibre  of  superior  strengtli.  The  leaves,  from  their  ex- 
traordinary dimensions,  are  gathered  with  important 


CHINESE  MULBERRY. 


37 


economy  of  labor  and  of  time,  and  from  their  superior 
nutritious  quaiities,  they  are  preferred  by  the  insects  to 
all  others. 

This  mulberry  should  be  cultivated  in  hedge  rows, 
and  never  suffered  to  rise  higher  than  seven  or  eight 
feet.  But  a few  years  are  sufficient  to  raise  considera- 
ble fields  of  them  in  full  vigor,  sufficient  to  support  an 
immense  number  of  silk-worms  ; and  regular  plantations 
can  be  formed,  by  planting  the  trees  at  the  distance 
of  from  six  to  eight  feet  asunder ; or  in  rows  of  eight 
feet  asunder,  and  the  trees  at  three  or  four  feet  dis- 
tance in  the  row ; a space  sufficient  for  the  extension  of 
the  branches,  sufficient  also  for  cultivation,  and  for  the 
greater  convenience  of  gathering  the  leaves.  So  great- 
ly is  this  last  operation  facilitated  by  the  flexibility  of 
the  stalks,  and  the  superior  size  of  the  leaf,  that,  as  we 
are  assured  by  M.  Perrottet,  a child  is  sufficient  for 
gathering  the  food  for  a large  establishment  of  silk- 
worms. 

The  Morus  rnulticaulis,  since  its  introduction  to 
France,  seems  destined  to  replace  everywhere  the  com- 
mon white  mulberry  for  the  nourishment  of  silk-worms, 
such  is  its  decided  superiority  over  all  others.  M.  Bo- 
nafoux,  the  director  of  the  Royal  Gardens  at  Turin, 
and  the  celebrated  writer  on  silk,  has  also  fully  attested 
its  decisive  superiority  in  Italy,  where  he  has  found, 
that  by  close  planting  and  low  pruning,  whole  fields 
may  be  suddenly  covered  with  a mass  of  the  most  luxu- 
riant foliage.  He  has  tried  them  extensively.  And  M. 
Dupont,  of  Chiron,  near  Chamberry,  in  France,  has 
found  that  as  the  silk-worms  fed  on  this  mulberry  make 
less  waste  of  litter  and  of  food,  so  the  chances  of  dis- 
ease are  diminished  from  this  cause,  and  they  finish 
their  labors  in  three  days  less  time,  and  that  the  silk  has 
a more  brilliant  lustre.  He  has  also  found  that  the  sav- 
ing of  labor  in  gathering  the  food  is  so  great,  that  ten 
quintals  of  the  leaves  of  the  Moms  multicaulis  are  gath- 
ered with  the  same  labor  that  is  required  to  gather  two 


38 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


quintals  of  the  common  white  mulberry.  By  the  most 
perfect  rules  of  pruning,  he  makes  this  mulberry  assume 
the  form  of  a quenouille  or  vast  distaff,  fifteen  feet  high, 
the  form  to  be  always  preserved. 

This  mulberry  braves  the  most  rigorous  winters  of 
France.  Of  this  important  fact  we  have  the  indisput- 
able testimony  of  M.  Poiteau  and  others  ; even  of  the 
uncommonly  severe  winter  of  1829-30 : it  has  there 
been  acclimated,  even  to  the  extreme  north,  as  far  as 
Havre;  and  where  it  has  been  cultivated  by  M.  Eyries, 
from  its  first  introduction  to  that  country. 

Dr.  Deslongchamps,  in  his  experiments  at  Paris,  had 
found,  that  the  cocoons  produced  by  the  silk-worms 
w^hich  were  fed  exclusively  on  the  Chinese  mulberry 
were  even  rather  heavier  than  other  cocoons.  And  in 
the  report  on  this  mulberry  to  the  academy  of  Dijon,  in 
August,  1834,  by  M.  Tilloy,  it  appeared  by  accurate 
experiments,  that  the  cocoons  produced  from  this  mul- 
berry being  rather  heavier,  the  fibre  was  consequently 
stronger  than  that  of  other  cocoons ; as  it  was  remarked 
in  winding,  that  of  the  whole  of  these,  three  hundred 
and  eighty-four  cocoons  in  number,  not  a thread  was 
broken,  which  was  not  the  case  with  the  other  cocoons. 

Near  Montgeron  in  the  north  of  France,  the  French 
government  have  established  an  experimental  silk  farm, 
under  the  direction  of  M.  Camille  Beauvais  ; and  the  ex^ 
traordinary  experiments  which  are  there  in  progress 
were  published  in  1835.  Already  has  lie  succeeded  in 
producing  thirteen  pounds  of  silk  from  the  same  num- 
ber of  silk-w^orms  which  in  France  usually  produced  but 
five  pounds,  and  in  Italy  seven  and  a half  p)Ounds,  and 
in  India  twenty  pounds;  and  even  in  that  climate  he  ex- 
pects soon  to  be  able  to  produce  an  equal  number  of 
pounds.  And  Gen.  Talmadge,  who  has  lately  visited 
the  establishment,  has  stated  in  a letter  dated  April, 
1836,  at  Paris,  that  when  the  leaves  of  the  different 
kinds  of  mulberry  are  ^ixed  together,  the  worms  will 
select  and  gather  on  the  Chinese  mulberry.  And  Mad- 


CHINESE  MULBERRY. 


39 


ame  Parmentier  has  found  on  trial  at  her  late  establish- 
ment at  Brooklyn,  New  York,  that  the  silk-worms  left 
seven  other  species  of  the  mulberry  to  feed  on  this. 

In  Tuscany,  so  fine  is  their  climate  that  two  success- 
ive crops  of  silk  are  annually  produced  by  the  common 
mulberry  ; and  Dr.  Deslongchamps  has  proved,  that  by 
aid  of  the  Chinese  mulberry,  two  crops  of  silk  may  be 
annually  produced  even  in  the  north  of  France.  Our 
climate  is  far  more  propitious  than  theirs,  and  at  least  as 
favorable  as  that  of  Italy;  since  in  the  south  of  that 
country,  the  pernicious  sirocco,  a dreadful  south  wind, 
sometimes  strikes  whole  communities  of  silk-worms  dead. 
The  cocoons  of  the  second  crop  which  were  produced 
by  Madame  Parmentier,  being  fed  exclusively  on  the 
Chinese  mulberry,  were  of  a brilliant  and  snowy  white- 
ness. Those  also  which  were  exhibited  at  the  fair  of 
the  American  Institute,  in  New  York,  in  1833,  of  the 
first  and  second  crops,  both  being  fed  exclusively  on  the 
Moms  multicaulis,  completed  their  labors  before  mid- 
summer ; these  cocoons  were  also  of  a snowy  whiteness. 

At  the  government  establishment  near  Montgeron,  in 
1835,  there  were  67,000  mulberries  of  different  species, 
set  out  and  in  a flourishing  state,  including  a great  num- 
ber of  the  Chinese  mulberries ; these  were  kept  very 
low  by  pruning.  M.  Beauvais  founds  his  expectations, 
his  sanguine  reliance,  on  this  mulberry  alone,  for  the 
production  of  the  second  crop  of  silk. 

The  prediction  of  the  late  Dr.  Pascalis,  in  1830,  that 

after  the  discovery  of  this  plant  y a doubt  no  longer  cx- 
ists  that  two  crops  of  silk  may  he  produced  in  a single 
season;  ” this  prediction  has  since  been  accomplished — 
its  truth  fulfilled  by  experiment.  The  soil  and  cultiva- 
tion, the  habitations  for  the  successive  generations  of 
silk-worms,  being  yet  the  same,  all  thus  converted  to 
double  use,  and  the  production  of  a twofold  harvest,  it 
will  be  obvious  that  the  actual  profit,  thus  augmented, 
must  be  manifold. 

In  a report  on  this  mulberry  which  was  made  to  the 


40 


SILK  GROWEK’s  GUIDE. 


Academy  of  Dijon  by  M.  Tilloy,  of  the  Medical  Jury  ot 
the  Department  of  Cote  D’Or,  August,  1S34,  it  is  stated 
that  in  the  same  situation,  time,  and  temperature,  live 
hundred  silk-worms  were  fed  on  fifteen  pounds  of  the 
leaves  of  the  White  Mulberry,  and  five  hundred  other 
silk-worms  were  fed  on  fifteen  pounds  of  the  leaves  of  the 
Morus  multicaulis  ; both  finished  in  the  same  time.  Of 
the  cocoons  produced  from  the  White  Mulberry  it  re- 
quired four  hundred  and  twenty  to  the  pound,  while  of 
those  produced  from  the  Morus  multicaulis,  it  required 
but  384;  both  gave  two  ounces  of  very  fine  silk  to  the 
pound,  of  equal  beauty;  but  it  was  remarked  that  in 
winding  the  cocoons  fed  from  the  Chinese  Mulberry, 
not  a thread  was  broken,  which  was  not  the  case  with 
the  others. 

It  appears  from  the  deliberations  of  the  French  Roy- 
al Society  of  Horticulture,  (as  noted  in  the  Farmer’s 
Register)  that  the  Chinese  Mulberry  or  Morus  multi- 
caulis is  not  a distinct  species,  and  that  as  a new  and  in- 
valuable variety,  it  can  only  be  preserved  by  multiplying 
it  from  grafts,  layers,  and  cuttings  ; and  that  by  these 
means  exclusively  have  tlie  Chinese  cultivators  reared 
the  tree  from  time  immemorial.  And  M.  Maupoil  a 
Frenchman  settled  at  Lombardy,  who  propagates  the 
Chinese  Mulberry  by  every  mode,  has  found  that  plants 
raised  from  seed  tend  to  approach  in  character  the  com- 
mon White  Mulberry;  thence  he  recommends  its  propa- 
gation by  slips  and  grafting  exclusively.  Seeds  sown 
near  Venice  have,  it  is  further  stated,  produced  varie- 
ties, but  none  like  the  true  Morus  multicaulis. 

For  the  following  excellent  remarks  on  the  virtues  and 
mode  of  culture  of  the  Morus  multicaulis , the  public 
are  indebted  to  the  valuable  Silk  Manual”  of  Mr. 
Roberts,  the  editor  of  the  Farmer  and  Gardener , which 
is  published  at  Baltimore  This  communication  is  from 
Gideon  B.  Smith,  Esq.,  who  was  formerly  the  editor  of 
the  “ American  Farma\^^  Higher  authority  than  Mr, 
Smith,  as  a gentleman  practically  acquainted  with  his 


CHINESE  MULBERRY. 


41 


subject,  I need  not  name.  From  this  communication  I 
have  extracted  largely,  as  I deem  it  very  important. 

Morus  Multicaulis. 

‘‘  Editor  Farmer  and  Gardener  : 

‘‘  Sir, — Having  seen  many  statements  and  sugges- 
tions in  the  public  prints,  that  the  Chinese  Mulberry, 
Moms  rnulticaiilis j was  not  as  hardy  as  the  White  Mul- 
berry, that  it  would  not  bear  the  extreme  cold  of  our 
winters,  &c.,  I deem  it  proper  to  state  my  own  obser- 
vations on  the  subject.  I was  the  first  person  south  of 
New  York,  who  had  the  Morus  Multicaulis.  It  was 
sent  to  me  by  my  old  friends,  William  Prince  and  Sons, 
in  1828,  in  a collection  of  seven  other  varieties  of  mul- 
berry, but  under  another  name. 

About  a year  after  I received  it,  accounts  were  recei- 
ved from  France  of  the  receipt  there  of  the  Morus  Mul- 
ticauiis,  and  of  its  great  value  for  feeding  silk-worms, 
I immediately  commenced  feeding  my  silk-worms  with 
the  multicaulis,  and  from  experiment  ascertained  the 
truth  of  all  the  French  had  said  about  it.  From  that 
time  to  this,  I have  continued  to  urge  upon  all,  the  pro- 
priety of  cultivating  this,  in  preference  to  the  white 
mulberry. 

Its  advantages  are: — it  fully  as  hardy  as  the 
white  ; one  pound  of  its  leaves  contains  as  much  nutri- 
tive matter  as  a pound  and  an  half  of  the  white;  the 
silk  made  from  it  is  of  a finer  texture  and  more  lustrous; 
its  leaves  are  so  large,  that  a pound  can  be  gathered  at 
half  the  expense  and  trouble  that  a pound  of  white  mul- 
berry leaves  require;  it  can  be  cultivated  with  infi- 
nitely more  despatch  than  any  other  kind.  These  are 
all  great  advantages,  and  I am  so  well  convinced  of  the 
correctness  of  this  statement,  that  I do  not  hesitate  to 
say,  that  within  ten  years,  no  other  mulberry  will  be 
cultivated  for  feeding  silk-worms ; simply  because  those 


42 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


who  feed  silk-worms  upon  white  mulberry  leaves  will 
not  be  enabled  to  compete  with  those  who  feed  on  mo- 
rus  multicaulis,  and  they  will  be  either  compelled  to 
abandon  the  silk  business,  or  adopt  the  multicaulis  for 
feeding.  In  relation  to  the  hardiness  of  the  morus  mul- 
ticaulis, I have  to  remark,  that  I have  cultivated  it  for 
seven  years;  never  protected  it  in  any  manner  whatever, 
and  never  lost  a tree  by  the  cold  of  winter  or  in  any 
other  way.  I had  fifty  young  trees  in  my  garden  last 
winter,  and  not  even  a bud  on  the  extremity  of  the 
branches  was  injured.  It  is  true  about  50  yards  west 
from  where  the  young  trees  stood,  there  is  a grove  of 
oak  trees,  and  on  the  north  50  yards  distant,  my  dwell- 
ing house  stood ; and  the  garden  has  an  exposure  to  the 
south  with  a gentle  declination.  But  my  residence  in 
the  winter  of  1831-2  was  very  different.  It  was  a farm 
four  miles  in  the  country  in  a north-east  direction ; the 
situation  at  an  elevation  of  300  or  400  feet  above  tide 
water.  There  my  morus  multicaulis  had  an  open  ex- 
posure to  the  north-west  wind  ; yet  none  were  injured. 
During  the  whole  time,  I have  had  the  white  mulberry 
of  several  varieties,  and  have  observed  that  they  were 
all  equally  hardy — none  more  so  than  the  multicaulis. 
I have  seen  the  young  unripened  wood  of  all  the  vari- 
eties destroyed  by  winter,  and  was  very  early  led  to 
adopt  measures  to  guard  against  it,  and  now  I never 
lose  a hudJ^ 

“ None  but  the  young  trees  are  ever  injured  by  win- 
ter, and  all  we  have  to  do  is  to  give  them  such  a start, 
as  to  enable  them  to  ripen  their  wood  previous  to  the 
approach  of  very  cold  weather. 

‘‘  After  the  first  year,  I have  never  seen  any  of  them 
lost  by  winter,  except  in  some  extra  cases,  and  in  these 
cases,  the  white  mulberry  has  suffered,  and  even  the  na- 
tive mulberry,  fully  as  much  as  the  multicaulis.  Last 
winter,  a white  mulberry  tree,  seven  or  eight  years  old, 
in  the  western  part  of  the  city  of  Baltimore,  was  killed 
to  the  ground ; while  my  morus  multicaulis,  not  a quar- 


SOIL,  SITUATION  AND  CLIMATE. 


43 


ter  of  a mile  from  it,  and  north  of  it  too,  and  in  a high- 
er situation  was  not  injured.” 

“ In  fine.  Sir,  I am  in  no  way-  interested  now  in  the 
business  of  raising  mulberry  trees  or  silk,  so  that  I can 
be  influenced  by  no  mercenary  consideration  in  giving 
my  opinion  as  above,  and  therefore,  the  more  depen- 
dence may  be  placed  on  these  suggestions.  The  man- 
ner of  propagating  as  above  described,  is  my  own  dis- 
covery, and  has  been  practised  by  me  four  years  with 
invariable  success.” 

Mr.  Smith  differs  from  the  opinion  I had  adopted  on 
the  authority  of  the  French,  as  I have  stated  in  page  40, 
and  seems  persuaded  that  this  mulberry  is  a distinct 
species,  as  is  the  alba,  rubra,  nigra,  &.c. 

The  plan  recommended  by  Mr.  Smith  as  above,  and 
which  originated  with  him,  consists  in  raising  the  trees 
from  cuttings  in  a hot  bed.  These  are  prepared  and 
planted  early  in  March,  and  placed  three  inches  asun- 
der ; the  eye  so  buried  as  to  be  barely  visible  at  the  sur- 
face, and  covered  with  glass.  The  bed  is  occasionally 
watered  and  protected  from  frost  at  night,  and  a scorch- 
ing sun  at  mid-day. 

By  the  middle  of  May,  the  plants  will  be  six  inches 
high,  and  may  be  transplanted  to  the  open  ground,  and 
watered  daily  till  rooted.  If  the  weather  is  dry,  they 
will  ripen  their  wood,  and  need  no  protection  in  the 
first  winter. 


SECTION  XV. 

SOIL,  SITUATION  AND  CLIMATE. 

Although  the  mulberry  flourishes  most  luxuriantly  in 
a moist  and  rich  soil  and  protected  situation,  yet  the 
leaves  which  are  produced  in  such  soils  are  more  crude, 


44 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


and  not  of  a quality  so  nourishing.  The  growth  of  the 
tree  in  such  soils  and  expositions,  besides  being  more 
rapid,  is  prolonged  to  a later  period  in  autumn,  or  un- 
til suddenly  arrested  by  frost ; and  the  immature  wood 
of  a forced  growth,  being  more  tender,  is  consequently 
more  liable  to  be  killed  by  early  frosts  and  by  winter. 
Such  appears  to  have  been  the  case  in  the  winter' of 
i83l-2,  which  destroyed  so  many  full-grown  trees  of  the 
hardiest  description,  even  to  the  root.  The  ravages  of 
that  destructive  winter  seem  to  have  been  confined  to 
particular  situations  and  soils  ; to  the  productions  of  the 
forced  growth  of  a summer  not  less  uncommon  and  ex- 
traordinary. 

In  northern  climates,  the  young  and  tender  plants  of 
the  plum  and  the  cherry,  the  pear  and  the  quince,  and 
numerous  others  of  the  most  hardy  species,  require  pro- 
tection during  the  first  winter  in  a state  of  cultivation. 
Their  growth  being  prolonged,  and  by  art  forced  on, 
nature  demands  their  protection  on  a soil  rendered  de- 
fenceless hy  cultivation.  Death  assails  at  the  surface, 
by  the  combined  and  alternate  action  of  the  frost  and  of 
sunshine  ; the  frost  by  its  expansive  power  operating  on 
the  earth  as  a girdle,  destruction  assails  at  the  surface, 
the  point  the  most  vulnerable,  and  the  top  dies  as  a con- 
sequence ; or,  their  roots  taking  hold  feebly  in  earth,  are 
cast  out  by  death. 

In  a state  of  nature,  and  in  the  shades  and  protection 
of  the  forest,  or  of  herbage,  the  growth  of  the  young 
tree  being  slow,  and  the  wood  completely  matured  in 
due  season,  the  case  is  far  otherwise;  the  bountiful  cov- 
ering of  moss,  of  herbage,  or  of  leaves,  with  which  pro- 
vident nature  clothes  the  ground,  being  amply  suffi- 
cient to  modify  the  growth  of  the  plant,  and  defend  at 
the  root.  This  protection,  like  the  fleecy  snow,  being 
two-fold,  it  defends  alike  from  the  blasts  of  sudden  and 
excessive  cold,  also  from  the  still  more  destructive  and 
pernicious  rays  of  the  sun.'^  These  remarks  are  equally 
applicable  to  the  very  young  trees  of  the  different  vari- 


SOIL,  SITUATION  AND  CLIMATE.  45 

eties  of  the  mulberry,  to  those  especially  which  late  in 
autumn  have  been  transplanted  to  new  positions,  or  the 
forced  trees  of  but  a single  summer’s  growth;  defence- 
less, unprotected,  and  all  exposed,  on  an  unsuitable  and 
naked  soil,  they  meet  the  frosts  of  autumn  and  of  win- 
ter unprepared. 

A dry,  sterile  sand  is  unsuitable  ; and  a shallow  soil 
on  a foundation  of  clay  produces  leaves  of  bad  quality. 
In  low,  rich  grounds,  and  extensive  plains  or  prairies, 
near  ponds,  and  in  the  valleys  of  rivers,  the  mulberry 
tree  indeed  grows  most  vigorously,  yet  the  leaves  being 
more  watery,  though  voraciously  devoured,  they  prolong 
the  labors  of  the  insect  by  inducing  weakness,  and  in- 
jure the  quality  of  the  produce.  These  grounds  are 
alike  exposed  to  the  destructive  frosts  of  winter  and  of 
summer  ; the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  in  such  situa- 
tions causes  the  leaves  to  become  spotted  and  to  mildew, 
and  the  leaves  thus  infected,  if  given  to  the  insects,  are 
the  sure  sources  of  disease  and  of  death. 

Sunny  expositions  and  the  declivities  of  hills,  those 
especially  which  slope  to  the  south,  east,  or  west,  are 
favorable.  The  cocoons  of  mountainous  countries  are 
deemed  superior  to  those  of  the  plains;  although  not  so 
large,  they  are  usually  of  a whiter  color.  Plant  the 
mulberry  tree  on  the  high  uplands,  and' on  the  hills,  for 
here  they  are  neither  exposed  to  suffer  from  the  early 
and  the  latter  frosts,  nor  are  the  leaves  liable  to  become 
spotted  or  diseased  from  the  mildew ; and  from  these 
combined  causes,  the  growth  of  the  tree  will  be  conse- 
quently prolonged  for  a double  length  of  time. 

Prepare  the  soil  by  suitable  nutriment,  to  the  depth  of 
eighteen  inches  beneath  the  tree,  and  to  a proper  dis- 
tance around.  The  roots  of  the  mulberry  tree  strike 
downwards;  jather  plants  may  therefore  be  profitably 
cultivated  beneath  its  shade,  which  is  not  deemed  per- 
nicious, the  whole  ground  being  kept  as  a garden  during 
the  first  years. 

The  climate  of  the  countries  bordering  on  the  great 


46 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


northern  arteries  or  rivers  is  in  some  degree  unfavora- 
ble. The  winds,  which,  unobstructed,  follow  almost  in- 
variably the  general  course  of  the  valleys  of  these  rivers, 
bring  down  alternately  from  high  northern  regions,  and 
from  other  climes,  a degree  of  cold,  during  winter,  the 
most  intense  and  destructive.  On  the  best  authority  I 
am  assured  that  the  pear,  and  particularly  the  peach 
and  the  cherry,  have  during  the  last  winters  suffered 
partial  destruction  in  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut,  as 
far  south  as  the  country  around  the  city  of  Hartford,  and 
even  still  farther  downwards  and  towards  the  sea.  And 
even  the  mulberry  tree  in  these  regions,  is,  as  I am  in- 
formed, liable  to  perish  in  its  top  in  certain  seasons. 
Even  far  below  the  city  of  Albany,  on  the  Hudson  or 
North  river,  the  cherry  tree  particularly,  and  many  other 
trees  which  are  equally  as  hardy,  and  especially  during 
all  the  period  of  their  younger  years,  are,  as  I am  assured, 
extremely  liable  to  suffer  death  during  winter,  from  the 
same  destructive  climate  and  causes. 

The  proper  soils  for  th^  mulberry  tree  are  ‘‘  dry,  san- 
dy, or  stony And  trees  growing  on  dry,  sandy  or 
stony  soils,  and  situated  on  the  open  plains,  and  on  hills 
the  most  exposed  to  cold  winds,  will  be  found  to  suffer 
least  of  all  from  the  destructive  frosts  of  autumn  and  of 
winter.  With  all  authors  I must  agree  in  recommend- 
ing a soil  of  but  moderate  fertility,  and  least  of  all  a 
cold,  moist,  and  heavy  soil  on  a clay  foundation,  or  even 
a very  rich  soil ; a dry  soil  on  a friable  subsoil,  on  gen- 
tle elevations  or  declivities,  being  the  most  suitable  of 
all  for  the  mulberry  from  China. 

Land  of  middling  quality  will  answer  admirably;  land 
less  calculated  for  other  profitable  cultivation.  Land 
half  covered  with  rocks,  may  be  profitably  covered  with 
mulberry  trees,  which  will  here  find  ample  moisture,  and 
nourishment,  and  warmth,  from  the  direct  and  reflected 
rays  of  the  sun.  ^ 

This  culture  alone  is  wanting  to  render  the  less  fertile 
sections  of  our  tine  country  rich.  Before  the  introduc- 


CULTIVATION. 


47 


tion  of  the  mulberry  into  the  less  fertile  districts  of  Lan- 
guedoc, in  France,  the  inhabitants,  it  has  been  stated, 
were  miserably  poor,  though  now  they  are  among  the 
richest  in  the  kingdom.  A dry  upland,  and  not  a very 
rich  soil,  is  there  found  to  be  advantageous  to  its  growth. 

Mulberry  trees,  however,  should  never  be  set  on  the 
great  roads,  as  the  leaves  become  covered  with  a coat  of 
dust  which  is  injurious  to  insects. 


SECTION  XVI. 

CULTIVATION. 

The  mulberry  is  propagated  by  seeds,  by  layers,  or 
by  engrafting. 

By  seeds. — The  seeds  are  obtained  by  washing  the 
bruised  pulp  of  thoroughly  ripe  fruit.  The  trees  for  this 
purpose  must  be  shaken  every  day.  The  fruit  is  mashed 
in  a tub  with  water  till  thoroughly  incorporated,  and  the 
mass  being  largely  diluted  is  poured  off,  its  place  being 
supplied  by  new  quantities  till  the  water  comes  off  clear 
and  the  seed  is  perfectly  clean  ; it  is  then  dried  on  cloths 
in  the  shade.  When  perfectly  dry,  it  is  preserved  in 
bottles  well  corked,  and  kept  in  a dry  cool  place. 

Good  mulberry  seed  will  sink  to  the  bottom  after 
steeping  a short  time  in  water ; and  an  ounce  will  usu- 
ally produce  from  5000  to  8000  plants.  Previous  to 
sowinof,  the  seeds  should  be  soaked  36  hours  in  warm 
milk  and  water,  and  after  being  drained  on  a sieve  they 
are  to  be  rolled  in  plaster  paris  or  ashes,  and  sown  im- 
mediately. 

The  seeds  are  sown  in  April  in  the  States  of  the 
South,  and  early  in  May  in  those  of  the  North — in  a 
rich  and  well  prepared  and  fresh  soil,  and  warm  and  se- 
questered situation ; in  drills  or  rows  15  inches  asunder, 
and  at  an  average  distance  of  about  half  an  inch. 


48 


SILK  GROWER^S  GUIDE, 


Cover  the  seed  but  half  an  inch  deep,  and  stamp  or 
roll  the  ground  immediately,  that  the  earth  may  retain 
sufficient  moisture  at  its  surface.  Carefully  hoe  and 
weed  during  summer,  and  late  in  autumn  protect  with  a 
slight  covering  of  straw,  leaves  or  evergreens ; or  take 
up  the  plants,  and  secure  them  in  a cellar  till  spring. 
This  protection,  during  the  first  winter,  is  alike  neces- 
sary with  every  variety  of  mulberry;  but  after  the  first 
winter,  protection  is  no  longer  required. 

At  twoyears  of  age — even  at  a year  old,  if  the  mulber- 
ries have  grown  well,  they  are  to  be  transplanted,  that 
they  may  throw  out  lateral  roots.  The  soil  must  be 
rich,  and  the  trees  may  be  set  in  rows  four  feet  asunder, 
and  10  inches  or  a foot  distant  in  the  row.  Many  have 
found  that  they  make  a greater  growth  to  cut  them  down 
to  two  inches  above  ground. 

In  the  second  spring  the  trees  are  set  in  rows  four 
feet  asunder,  in  a rich  soil,  and  a foot  distant  in  the  row\ 
By  this  mode  almost  exclusively  is  the  Common  White 
Mulberry  raised,  the  Common  English  Black,  or  Nigra, 
and  the  American  Red  Mulberry.  But  the  Morus  Mul- 
ticaulis,  otherwise  the  Chinese  Black  Mulberry,  is  culti- 
vated exclusively  by  layers,  by  cuttings,  by  inoculating 
or  grafting. 

Layers. — Layers  are  the  side  shoots  bent  down,  and 
secured  by  hooks,  and  partly  covered  with  earth,  their 
extreme  ends  only  being  left  out,  but  4)reviously  they 
should  be  tongued,  an  operation  whicK.consists  in  cut- 
ting the  shoot  half  in  two  below  a bud  or  eye,  and  slit- 
ting it  upwards  an  inch  or  more  according  to  the  size. 
This  is  performed  at  the  bend,  and  the  tongue  is  kept 
open  by  a piece  of  pebble,  and  the  part  covGr^d^jyath 
fresh  earth  and  pressed  down.  Thus  managed  in  sprihg, 
or  at  mid-summer,  they  soon  take  root,  and  are  separated 
from  the  main  plant  in  autumn. 

Cuttings,  are  the  twigs  or  branches  of  the  young 
wood,  or  part  young  artd  part  old,  cut  in  lengths  of 
about  six  inches,  and  close  below  an  eye ; these  are  set 
more  than  two-thirds  of  their  length  beneath  a humid 


PLANTATIONS  OF  MULBERRY  TREES. 


49 


soil,  and  the  ground  trodden  hard.  Cuttings  are  planted 
early  in  spring. 

Comte  Dandolo  and  others  have  recommended  to  graft 
the  Common  White  Mulberry,  with  the  large  leaved  and 
finer  varieties,  those  which  produce  abundant  crops  of 
leaves;  and  especially  the  male  plants,  as  these,  produc- 
ing no  fruit,  yield  larger  leaves,  which  are  not  soiled  and 
disfigured  by  the  bruised  fruit  in  gathering.  Many  of 
the  wild  varieties  are  bad,  the  trees  thorny,  the  leaves 
small  or  few  in  number.  They  should  be  inoculated 
near  the  ground,  or  they  may  be  engrafted  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  in  the  third  spring. 

M.  Bourgeons  also  states  that  those  grafted  with  the 
better  kinds,  such  as  the  Rose  leaved,  and  the  Spanish 
Mulberry,  produce  leaves  not  only  more  beautiful,  but 
of  more  nourishing  quality  and  greater  number.  The 
same  is  stated  by  M.  Thome,  a name  of  equally  high  au- 
thority, and  one  who  had  devoted  to  the  culture  of  silk- 
worms 40  years  of  his  life. 

The  -Morus  multicaulis  is  propagated  with  great  ra- 
pidity in  all  the  northern  and  middle  States  by  the  fol- 
lowing mode.  The  ground  being  suitably  prepared,  the 
whole  tree,  divested  of  a portion  of  its  lateral  shoots,  is 
planted  horizontally  in  the  furrow  ; the  root  placed  at 
suitable  depth  and  trodden  hard,  the  whole  top  of  the 
tree  is  covered  with  an  inch  in  depth  of  light  soil,  ren- 
dered compact  with  the  hoe;  from  every  lateral  and  up- 
per eye,  shoots  will  be  produced  which  form  fine  trees 
by  autumn.  From  every  eye  roots  are  emitted  in  abun- 
dance, even  before  the  eye  reaches  the  surface.  No  tree 
hitherto  known  is  propagated  more  rapidly. 


SECTION  XVII. 
PLANTATIONS  OF  MULBERRY  TREES. 


Whoever  would  enter  extensively  on  the  culture  of 
silk,  must  first  of  all  provide  an  abundance  of  the  ma- 


50 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


terial  food  of  the  silk-worm.  Let  the  plantations  and 
supplies  of  the  mulberry  leaves  abound,  that  there  be  no 
lack  of  nourishment  in  the  latter  days,  when  most  of  all 
the  silk-worms  require  very  large  quantities  of  food,  as 
any  deficiency  at  that  critical  period  would  be  without 
remedy  ; for  th-e  profit  of  the  silk-worms  depends  mainly 
on  their  being  full  fed,  as  the  cocoons  will  in  this  case 
be  large  and  the  filament  strong. 

Economy  is  however  important  in  regard  to  food,  that 
the  insects  be  regularly  fed,  and  their  wants  duly  sup- 
plied, and  that  none  be  wasted.  Economy  is  equally 
important  as  it  regards  time;  the  plantation  should  there- 
fore be  near,  that  little  time  be  wasted  in  travelling  to 
and  fro. 

The  roots  of  the  mulberry  tree  incline  downwards, 
descending  deep  into  the  soil : unlike  other  trees  whose 
roots  incline  towards  the  surface,  they  do  not  so  much 
impoverish  the  upper  soil ; and  other  plants,  whose  roots 
do  not  descend  deep,  may  be  cultivated  with  profit  be- 
neath their  shade.  It  is  stated  on  good  authority,  that 
beneath  the  shade  of  the  groves  of  the  mulberry  tree, 
the  pasture  is  always  more  valuable  and  abundant,  pro- 
tected as  it  is  from  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun. 

Formerly,  in  Italy  and  in  France,  the  plantations  of 
the  mulberry  consisted  almost  exclusively  of  large  stand- 
ard trees — the  surface  of  the  land  being  covered  with 
groves.  Elsewhere  I shall  give  the  particulars  of  the 
formation  of  a mulberry  grove  of  60  arperits  at  Fontaine, 
near  the  city  of  Lyons,  in  France,  as  related  to  me  by 
S.  V.  S.  Wilder,  Esq.  Thrice  he  visited  this  plantation 
from  its  formation,  and  during  17  years,  by  which  time 
it  had  become  a source  of  great  revenue  to  the  proprie- 
tor. The  leaves  were  not  sold  to  the  gatherers  till  the 
sixth  year,  and  then  the  leaves  at  the  tip  ends  of  the 
twigs  were  invariably  left.  In  Connecticut  the  practice 
prevailed  almost  exclusively  of  planting  trees  at  remote 
distances;  and  there  they  climb  trees  of  30  or  40  feet 
in  height.  But  orchards  of  the  mulberry,  with  the  trees 


PLANTATIONS  OF  MULBERRY  TREES. 


51 


far  asunder,  are  not  so  highly  recommended  for  us; — 
trees  so  remotely  dispersed  are  liable  to  be  neglected. 
Their  complete  formation  is  necessarily  the  work  of 
years,  requiring  not  only  a considerable  capital,  but 
much  patience  and  a prolonged  ouliay.  Trees  of  enor- 
mous size  are  more  difficult  of  management  and  of  ac- 
cess, as  recourse  must  be  had  to  long  ladders,  or  to 
climbing,  which  is  liable  to  inflict  injurious  bruises. 
Time  is  also  wasted  in  gathering  the  leaves,  and  they 
are  seldom  gathered  completely  and  regularly ; and  ma- 
ny years  must  elapse  before  the  ground  can  be  com- 
pletely occupied  and  covered  with  their  shade. 

Standard  trees  may  however  be  set  in  lanes  and  other 
bye-places,  on  commons,  and  on  land  so  completely  cov- 
ered with  rocks  that  no  profitable  cultivation  can  be  ef- 
fected by  the  plough ; or  on  the  steep  and  precipitous 
acclivities  of  hills.  Mr.  Wilder  has  stated  it  as  a fact 
well  understood  in  France,  that  mulberry  trees  thus  sit- 
uated, improve  rather  than  diminish  the  pasture  beneath 
their  shade,  inasmuch  as  they  protect  from  the  rays  of 
the  scorching  sun.  On  low  ground  they  may  be  set  20 
feet  asunder,  and  but  12  feet  asunder  on  high  grounds, 
and  in  any  situations.  But  if  mulberry  trees  are  set  on 
the  borders  of  great  roads,  the  dust  with  which  they 
will  be  covered  is  injurious  to  the  silk-worms,  and  must 
be  first  separated  from  the  leaf  by  washing. 

Standard  mulberry  trees  may  be  set  on  the  northern 
and  other  cold  quarters,  as  a protection  to  the  planta- 
tions of  hedges  or  dwarf  trees. 

It  has  also  been  recommended  to  enclose  the  planta- 
tions of  the  mulberry  of  every  description  with  close 
hedge  to  serve  as  a fence. 

In  India  and  other  warm  countries,  the  seed  is  some- 
times scattered  broadcast,  or  sown  in  rows,  and  the 
plants  are  cropped  early  in  the  first  year,  and  when  the 
season  is  wet  they  will  start  afresh,  yielding  a second 
crop  of  leaves.  But  continual  close  cropping  will  in 
time  destroy,  and  these  are  renewed  from  the  seeds  by 
continual  sowing. 


52 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


SECTION  XVIII. 

HEDGES,  OR  DWARF  MULBERRY  TREE  PLANTA- 
TIOiNS. 

In  (*:iina,  in  India,  in  Persia  and  Turkey,  and  at  this 
day  in  France,  the  mulberry  is  raised  in  hedge  rows,  not 
being  generally  allowed  to  rise  higher  than  six  or  eight 
feet.  By  close  planting  in  hedge  rows,  and  by  careful 
cultivation,  the  land  is  wholly  covered  in  the  shortest 
possible  space  of  time  with  a large  mass  of  foliage, 
yielding  a profit  both  sudden  and  more  immediate,  a 
produce  even  far  more  abundant  than  from  full-grown 
trees.  This  same  system  is  now  gaining  ground  in  Bel- 
gium and  in  Italy.  Thus  half  the  labor  of  gathering  the 
food  is  saved,  and  the  tedious  cultivation  of  many  long 
years. 

Dwarf  nr  Low  Mulberry  tree  plantations,  therefore, 
and  their  formation,  is  the  mode  which  I shall  recom- 
mend for  general  adoption,  for  the  following  reasons  ; 

Isi.  They  arrive  to  a state  of  productiveness  with 
comparatively  little  expense  of  time  and  tillage.  2d. 
Sufficient  sun  and  air  are  admitted  to  the  tree  to  render 
the  leaves  of  the  first  quality,  and  to  enable  them  to  put 
forth  early.  8d.  The  ground  is  more  suddenly  and 
completely  filled  and  occupied  than  by  planting  stand- 
ards. 4th.  The  tree  is  more  easily  managed  and  its 
form  controlled.  5th.  The  produce  of  leaves  on  the 
same  quantity  of  land,  is  admitted  to  be  full  half  as 
much  more  from  the  cultivated  hedge  rows  than  from 
standard  trees  in  their  best  estate,  while  the  labor  of 
gathering  the  leaves  is  full  one  third  less.  6th.  Women 
and  children  can  gather  the  food  with  perfect  conven- 
ience from  hedges,  which  they  cannot  so  easily  do  at  all 
from  large  trees.  ^ 

Rosier,  and  other  modern  writers  of  France,  partic- 


HEDGES. 


53 


ularly  recommend  this  mode  in  preference  to  all  others  ; 
and  especially  have  they  recommended  that  the  M.  mul~ 
ticaulis  be  cultivated  by  this  mode  alone  : and  JM.  Bona- 
foux,  who  has  introduced  the  Morus  multicaulis  to  Mi- 
lan in  Italy,  recommends  both  the  plant  and  this  mode 
of  culture,  as  productive  of  crops  both  sudden  and  more 
abundant  than  any  other  before  known. 

In  Persia,  as  we  are  informed,  the  trees  are  kept  low 
and  not  suffered  to  rise  over  six  or  eight  feet  in  height. 
Broussa,  a city  of  Turkey,  at  tlie  foot  of  Mount  Olym- 
pus, is  famous  for  its  silk,  and  is  surrounded  by  mulberry 
plantations  ; the  trees,  says  Com.  Porter, 'are  planted  in 
rows,  not  more  than  two  or  three  feet  apart,  and  kept 
pruned  low  for  use,  in  the  season  for  gathering  the 
leaves,  so  that  a man  may  reach  the  top.  At  other  pla- 
ces in  this  great  silk  district,  the  same  system  is  pursued. 

The  ground  being  enriched  and  duly  prepared  to  a suit- 
able depth,  the  trees  may  be  set  in  rows  eight  feet  asunder, 
three  feet  distant  in  the  row ; two  thousand  trees  will 
thus  be  required  to  the  acre  ; the  cart-ways  transverse  ; 
and  the  ffround  beinor  cultivated  as  a garden ; but  four 
feet  distance  would  be  required  in  the  first  years,  and 
other  plants  may  be  cultivated  between.  The  leaves 
may  be  gathered  either  in  the  second  and  third  years,  or 
in  the  fifth  and  sixth,  according  to  the  variety.  In  strip- 
ping the  leaves,  those  at  the  tip  ends  of  the  twigs  are 
always  left.  In  hot  countries  the  silk-worms  are  fed 
wholly  on  pntningSy  as  the  leaves  thus  for  a longer  time 
preserve  their  needful  freshness  and  moisture. 

John  P.  Cushing,  Esq.  of  Belmont  in  Watertown,  a 
gentleman  who  has  resided  many  years  in  China,  has 
stated  that  the  most  approved  mode  of  cultivating  the 
mulberry,  as  practised  in  that  country,  consists  in  keep- 
ing them  low  by  annual  primings,  like  plantations  of 
raspberries.  The  same  mode,  according  to  Mr.  Loudon, 
and  also  M.  Bonafoux,  is  practised  in  India.  This  sys- 
tem of  close  planting  and  low  pruning  is  in  perfect  con- 
formity with  the  highly  approved  mode  of  management, 


54 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


which  is  now  so  extensively  adopted  with  the  grape  vine, 
in  vineyard  culture,  in  modern  France. 


SECTION  XIX. 

GATHERING  THE  LEAVES  FOR  FOOD. 

The  leaves  should  be  gathered  from  the  ground,  or  if 
on  trees,  by  step-ladders,  as  climbing  the  trees  inflicts 
injurious  bruises,  galling  the  limbs.  The  leaves  are 
gathered  in  bags  kept  open  with  a hoop  or  strap  to  pass 
over  the  shoulder.  Gather  them  while  dry,  after  the 
dew  has  disappeared  in  the  morning,  and  before  sunset. 
Strip  the  leaves  upwards,  not  downwards,  as  this  injures 
the  buds.  When  you  begin  a tree,  strip  it  complete, 
except  only  a few  at  the  tip  end  of  every  twig,  which 
must  be  left  as  essential  to  the  health  of  the  tree;  leave 
not  a leaf — take  all,  as  it  injures  the  tree  but  more  equally 
and  alike  in  every  part.  If  leaves  are  left  on  parts  of 
the  tree,  by  attracting  the  sap,  they  rob  the  other  parts 
which  are  left  destitute,  and  the  tree  grows  in  dispropor- 
tion. Wet  leaves  are  injurious — they  cause  disease  ; 
therefore  never  gather  them  when  wet,  either  with  rain 
or  dew,  except  in  cases  of  absolute  necessity ; then 
spread  them  on  a floor  under  cover,  and  turn  them  fre- 
quently till  dry;  or  they  may  be  placed  during  wet  wea- 
ther on  a staging  formed  of  tiers  of  laths  for  drying,  and 
spread  lightly.  A stock  should  always  be  kept  on  hand 
sufficient  to  last  two  or  three  days.  When  gathered, 
they  should  be  preserved  from  wilting  in  a cool  cellar, 
or  by  lying  spread  under  cover  on  a brick  pavement,  or 
clean  gravelled  floor,  being  often  turned  and  aired,  and 
shifted  alternately  to  new  and  dry  parts  of  the  floor ; 
they  may  be  thus  preserved  green  for  four  or  five  days. 

The  leaves  should  tiever  be  allowed  to  heat,  as  even 
the  slightest  degree  of  fermentation  produces  alteration 


UATHERING  THE  LEAVES  FOR  FOOD. 


55 


in  the  nutritive  substance  of  the  leaf,  rendering  it  inju- 
rious to  the  health  of  the  silk-worms. 

The  trees  of  common  varieties  should  not  be  stripped 
till  after  the  fifth  year  from  the  seed,  or  not  until  they 
have  attained  the  height  of  seven  or  eight  feet.  Too 
frequent  stripping  injures  the  growth  of  i^he  tree.  In  cold 
climates,  and  where  the  process  of  vegetation  is  slow,  the 
White  Mulberry  suffers  too  by  frequent  stripping.  In  Tus- 
cany, according  to  respectable  authorities,  so  fine  is  the 
climate,  that  a double  crop  of  leaves,  and  a double  produce 
of  silk  are  yielded  in  a season  from  the  same  trees  ; while 
in  India,  where  the  mulberry  is  an  ever-green  tree,  many 
crops  are  annually  produced.  I shall  refer  this  subject 
to  that  part  of  the  volume  which  treats  more  at  large  on 
the  subject  of  successive  crops  of  silk  in  a season.  I 
shall  also  in  that  place  offer  an  answer  to  the  remarks 
of  Count  Dandolo.  The  new  mulberry  so  peculiajly 
adapted  for  this  purpose,  was  alike  unknown  to  him  and 
to  Italy,  or  indeed  to  any  part  of  Europe  at  the  time  his 
celebrated  work  was  composed. 

In  Persia,  and  in  many  other  hot  countries,  the  silk- 
worms are  fed  principally  with  the  twigs  or  small  branches. 
This  mode  exclusively  has  been  also  recommended 
by  Mr,  Smith  of  Baltimore,  by  Mr.  Goodrich  of  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  both  gentlemen  of  much  observation  and 
experience.  The  leaves  in  this  case  retain  their  fresh- 
ness and  moisture  a double  length  of  time,  and  occasion 
no  tormenting  thirst. 

The  leaves  of  trees  are  the  essential  organs  of  respi 
ration,  and  are  necessary  to  t e prosperity  and  existence 
of  the  plant.  But  during  our  warm  and  bright  summers, 
and  where  the  growth  is  not  so  much  an  object,  they 
may  be  stripped  several  times  during  the  summer,  and 
their  foliage  is  immediately  renewed.  Leave  a portion 
of  the  trees  untouched  every  fourth  or  fifth  year,  to  re- 
cruit ; but  where  they  are  stripped  several  times  during 
the  same  season,  they  will  require  occasionally  a season 
of  rest. 


56 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


SECTION  XX. 

SUBSTITUTE  FOR  THE  MULBERRY. 

It  seems  to  have  been  proved  beyond  dispute,  by  prac- 
tical cultivators,  that  there  is  no  substitute  for  the  mul- 
berry which  can  be  profitably  employed  as  the  food  for 
silk-worms. 

Dr.  Ludovico  Bellardi  of  Turin,  has  shown  that  the 
silk-worms  which  have  been  hatched  prematurely,  will 
feed  with  avidity  and  prosper  on  the  dried  leaves  of  the 
mulberry.  These  are  gathered  in  fine  weather  in  au- 
tumn, and  carefully  dried  on  cloths  in  the  sun.  After 
being  reduced  to  a fine  powder,  it  is  preserved  in  a dry 
place  during  winter.  When  used,  it  is  slightly  moist- 
ened with  water ; then  being  placed  around  the  insects, 
they  speedily  fall  to  feeding. 

Silk-worms  have  been  raised,  and  in  perfect  health 
have  spun  perfect  cocoons,  when  fed  only  on  lettuce 
leaves.  Miss  Rhoades  had  indeed  discovered  that  silk- 
worms could  not  be  safely  fed  on  lettuce  leaves  for  a 
longer  period  than  three  weeks,  as  they  generally  be- 
came sickly,  ?ind  seldom  spun  their  cocoons.  The 
cause  she  was  led  to  ascribe  to  the  coldness  of  the  let- 
tuce. General  Mordaunt  pursuing  still  further  the  ex- 
periment, succeeded  in  hatching  and  rearing  silk-worms 
in  a hot  house,  on  the  leaves  of  the  lettuce  alone.  In  this 
case  they  flourished,  producing  cocoons  of  a most  per- 
fect quality.  Head  or  cabbage  lettuce  resists  the  ac- 
’ cess  of  rain  or  of  moisture,  and  may  always  be  found  in 
a dry  state. 

Mademoiselle  Coge,  of  Epinal,  it  is  also  stated  has 
used  with  the  most  perfect  success,  the  leaves  of  the 
scorzonera,  (viper  grassi^)  the  cocoons *thus  produced  be- 
ing fine. 


MODES  OF  MAKING  SILK.  # 


57 


It  is  also  asserted  that  the  leaves  of  the  Madura  au- 
rantiaca  or  Osage  orange,  have  proved  to  be  a valuable 
food  for  the  silk-worm.  This  beautiful  tree  which  re- 
sembles that  of  the  orange,  and  proves  hardy  near  Bos- 
ton, only  in  dry  and  elevated  situations,  has  the  property 
of  retaining  its  foliage  to  a late  period  in  autumn. 


SECTION  XXI. 

MODES  OF  MAKING  SILK  IN  DIFFERENT  COUN- 
TRIES. 

Give  the  silk-worms  air,  fresh  and  pure,  let  them  be 
comfortably  warm  and  dry,  and  cleanly,  and  with  suffi- 
cient space  to  preserve  them  from  contact,  with  plentiful 
supplies  of  food.  These  directions  alone  are  sufficient 
to  insure  the  most  perfect  success. 

Although  the  art  of  making  silk  was  for  ages  involved 
in  obscurity,  it  is  now  stripped  in  a great  measure  of  the 
dark  vestments  with  which  it  has  been  so  long  and  so 
mysteriously  veiled.  We  were  shown  in  1835,  by  H.  B. 
Stacy,  Esq.,  the  editor  of  the  Free  Press,  which  is  printed 
at  Burlington,  Vt.,  specimens  of  sewing  silk  of  different 
colors  and  the  most  perfect  beauty.  Unaided  by  any 
experience,  and  with  no  other  instruction  except  that 
which  books  afford,  Mr.  Stacy  had  succeeded  in  raising 
and  manufacturing  several  pounds  of  sewing  silk  of  a su- 
perior quality,  and  worth  $10  a pound  : yet  Mr.  Stacy  had 
never  before  seen  a silk-worm,  a cocoon,  or  reel,  and 
was  himself  astonished  to  find  no  portion  of  mystery  at- 
tached to  the  business.  The  cocoons  produ^edffiy  him 
were  very  large,  requiring  but  little  more  thm‘ SOO  to 
the  pound.  He  is  persuaded  that  the  main  prphl:  de- 
pends on  full  feedings  and  making  the  greatest  possible 
amount  of  silk  from  every  individual  insect. 

5 


58 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


In  some  parts  of  China,  where  the  climate  is  most 
suitable,  the  silk-worms  are  suffered  to  remain  at  liberty 
on  their  native  mulberry  trees.  There,  iincontroiled, 
and  unaided  by  man,  they  pass  through  their  various 
mutations  among  the  branches.  When  the  cocoons  are 
formed,  they  are  collected  from  the  trees,  except  only  a 
few,  which  are  left  for  reproduction. 

The  experiment  of  raising  silk-worms  in  the  open  air, 
was  tried  in  Languedoc,  in  France,  by  Monsieur  Mar- 
tely,  of  Montpelier,  in  the  garden  of  the  College  of  Jes- 
uits of  that  city,  in  1764.  In  that  year,  1200  francs 
were  appropriated  by  the  Minister  of  France  to  defray 
the  expense  of  the  experiment,  which  succeeded  perfect- 
ly. In  1765,  the  sum  of  1800  francs  were  appropriated 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  a second  trial.  But  owing  to 
the  unfavorable  state  of  the  weather,  and  the  heavy  and 
incessant  rains,  the  experiment  in  this  instance  totally 
failed  ; and  though  the  rearing  of  silk-worms  in  the  open 
air  has  not  been  attempted  in  that  quarter,  yet  its  partial 
success  taught  the  cultivators  new  and  important  les- 
sons in  regard  to  a more  perfect  system  of  ventilation. 

In  China,  when  the  mulberry  tree  has  sufficiently  put 
forth  leaves,  the  rolls  of  paper  on  which  the  eggs  of  the 
silk-worm  have  been  preserved,  are  daily  suspended  in 
the  sun — the  side  on  which  the  eggs  are  placed  being 
turned  from  its  rays ; at  night  the  papers  are  closely 
rolled  up  and  placed  in  a warm  situation,  and  this  be- 
ing daily  repeated,  the  eggs  will  be  hatched  in  about  4 
or  5 days.  But  in  high  latitudes  the  Chinese  regulate 
the  temperature  of  apartments  with  stoves,  that  the  eggs 
may  hatch  simultaneously. 

The  houses  for  silk-worms  are  in  dry  situations,  and 
in  a pure  atmosphere,  and  remote  from  noise.  The 
rooms  are  made  very  close,  but  with  ample  means  of 
ventilation,  and  the  doors  open  on  the  south.  Each 
room  or  chamber  is  provided  with  nine  or  ten  tiers  of 
frames,  on  which  theVush  hurdles  are  ranged  one  above 
another  ; on  these  the  insects  are  fed  during  all  the  dif- 
ferent periods  of  their  growth. 


MODES  OF  MAKING  SILK. 


59 


Stoves  are  also  provided  in  the  corners  of  the  apart- 
ments, to  preserve  an  uniform  and  equal  temperature,  or 
coals  are  carried  in  a chafing  dish  from  time  to  time 
backwards  and  forwards  through  the  rooms. 

In  China  the  wants  of  the  young  worms  are  supplied 
with  unceasing  attention  ; they  are  fed  during  the  night 
as  well  as  the  day.  Forty  times  during  the  first  twenty- 
four  hours  they  are  fed,  and  thirty  times  during  the  sec- 
ond day ; but  fewer  and  fewer  still  on  the  third  day  and 
afterwards. 

These  sagacious  observers,  from  their  long  experience, 
affirm,  that  as  the  growth  of  the  silk-worms  is  accelerated 
and  success  insured  by  the  abundance  of  their  food,  so 
also  they  affirm  that  the  quicker  the  silk-worms  are 
brought  to  maturity,  the  greater  is  the  quantity  of  silk 
which  they  produce.  If  the  silk-worms  which  are  pro- 
duced by  each  drachm  in  weight  of  eggs,  are  suffered  to 
linger  either  through  cold  or  neglect  and  famine  for  30 
or  40  days  before  they  begin  their  cocoons,  the  product 
of  silk  will  be  but  ten  ounces.  But  if  their  maturity  is 
completed  in  28  days,  the  product  will  be  twenty  ounces, 
while  the  same  quantity  of  silk-worms  which  in  a warmer 
temperature,  and  by  being  fully  fed  and  well  attended, 
have  completed  their  growth  in  the  short  time  of  twenty- 
five  days,  will  produce  25  ounces  of  silk. 

The  Chinese  are  fully  sensible  of  the  importance  of 
preserving  the  most  perfect  degree  of  cleanliness  in  their 
establishments,  and  are  exceedingly  careful  on  this  head. 
When  the  insect  is  prepared  to  spin,  mats  are  provided, 
and  in  the  centre  of  each  a leaf  is  affixed  an  inch  in 
width ; this  is  wound  round  in  a spiral  form  till  the  mat 
is  covered,  a space  being  left  between  each  circle  of  ona 
inch,  it  having  been  found  that  less  silk  is  wasted  in  the 
receptacles  of  these  dimensions,  than  where  more  space 
s allowed ; also  at  such  periods  they  exclude  the  out- 
jvard  air  and  light,  believing  the  silk-worrns  spin  their 
cocoons  more  diligent  in  darkness. 

Seven  days  gfter  the  silk-worms  have  commenced 


60  SILK  grower’s  guide. 

their  cocoons,  they  are  collected  together ; and  a suffi- 
cient number  being  reserved  for  breeding,  the  remain- 
der are  placed  in  layers  in  large  earthen  jars  with  salt, 
in  the  proportion  of  one  fortieth  part  of  the  whole  w^eight 
of  cocoons  between  the  layers.  The  whole  being  cov- 
ered with  large  dry  leaves,  the  mouths  of  the  vessels  are 
closely  stopped. 

The  long  shining  cocoons  produce  silk  of  superior 
quality.  These  are  separated  in  reeling,  by  the  Chinese, 
from  those  cocoons  of  a thick  form  and  dark  color, 
which  are  of  an  inferior  quality. 

In  China,  and  in  Han  Choo  Foo,  according  to  Sir 
George  Staunton,  women  only  are  employed  in  the  fab- 
rication of  flowered  and  embroidered  satins,  and  vast 
numbers  are  employed  in  very  extensive  factories. 

In  the  hot  climate  of  India,  the  silk-worms  are  reared 
and  sheltered  in  buildings,  and  beneath  sheds,  of  an  open 
and  airy  structure;  the  sides  being  composed  of  lattice 
work,  and  the  roofs  covered  with  thatch  ; their 
breadth  being  generally  fifteen  feet,  with  a path  through 
the  centre  of  sufficient  width.  The  height  is  usually 
eight  feet  or  more,  and  on  either  side,  and  one  above 
another,  and  in  tiers  of  from  12  to  16  deep,  are  the  sta- 
gings formed  of  shelves  or  shallow  boxes,  formed  of  bam- 
boo, in  which  the  silk-worms  are  placed.  The  posts 
which  support  the  stagings  rest  in  basins  of  water,  to 
protect  them  from  ants.  When  the  silk-worms  are  ready 
to  form  their  cocoons,  they  are  transferred  to  cells  form- 
ed of  platted  bamboo. 

Formerly,  it  had  been  the  practice  in  many  parts  of 
Europe,, to  enclose  a couple  of  ounces  of  eggs  in  a silk 
or  cotton  bag,  which  was  worn  in  the  bosom  next  the 
skin,  and  at  night  was  placed  beneath  a warm  pillow  ; 
after  three  days,  the  eggs  were  carefully  transferred  to 
thin  shallow  boxes — these  being  placed  between  warm 
pillows,  the  heat  of  which  was  frequently  renewed,  as 
the  silkworms  were  Expected  to  appear  towards  the 
fourth  day. 


MODES  OF  MAKING  SILK, 


61 


In  Italy,  Count  Dandolo  had  recommended  and  adopt- 
ed the  plan  of  using  stoves,  for  warming  and  regulating 
the  temperature  of  the  apartments  in  which  the  eggs 
were  hatched.  The  heat  of  these  rooms  being  regu- 
lated by  the  thermometer,  is  raised  during  the  first  day 
to  64  deg.,  raising  it  gradually  a degree  or  two  a day, 
till  it  shall  have  reached  82  deg.  on  the  tenth  day,  and 
this  point  is  not  to  be  exceeded.  Count  Dandolo  has 
suggested  that  one  room  might  answer  for  all  the  silk- 
worms of  a whole  district. 

Fortunately,  the  necessity  of  rules  like  these  are  un- 
known in  the  climate  of  that  portion  of  America  which 
we  inhabit. 

In  some  of  the  late  establishments  of  France,  they 
have  altogether  dispensed  with  the  use  of  fire  places  and 
stoves,  and  the  apartments  being  now  warmed  when 
needful  by  currents  of  heated  air,  warmed  by  a furnace 
placed  beneath,  or  without  the  main  apartment. 

Broussa,  a city  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Olympus,  like 
many  other  cities  of  Turkey,  says  Commodore  Porter, 
is  surrounded  with  plantations  of  the  mulberry;  and 
asses  laden  with  the  limbs  and  leaves  are  continually 
going  into  the  city. 

Mr.  Rhind  informs  us,  that  in  Turkey,  the  produc- 
tion of  silk  is  confined  to  the  cities  or  large  towns,  in 
the  vicinity  of  which,  the  mulberry  trees  are  chiefly  cul- 
tivated by  the  farmers  and  landed  proprietors,  who  do 
not  raise  the  silk-worm  themselves.  At  the  suitable 
season,  the  leaves  are  daily  collected  by  them,  and  sold 
in  the  market  of  the  city,  as  fruit  and  vegetables  are 
sold.  When  the  season  commences,  almost  every  fam- 
ily clear  out  all  the  rooms  in  the  house  except  the  one 
in  which  they  live  : the  worms  being  hatched,  they  pur- 
chase sufficient  leaves,  and  strew  them  over  the  floor  of 
each  room,  leaving  only  a small  space  round  the  four  walls, 
for  the  convenience  of  feeding;  they  then  place  the 
worms  on  the  leaves,  who  readily  attack  them;  new 
quantities  of  leaves  being  daily  added  to  supply  the 


62 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


wants  of  the  worms ; the  litter  is  never  removed,  but  is 
suffered  to  accumulate,  frequently  to  the  height  of  three 
feet.  When  the  worms  are  ready  for  winding,  branches 
and  brushes  are  planted  immediately  over  the  collected 
mass,  and  on  these  the  cocoons  are  formed;  and  these 
being  collected,  the  rooms  are  then  cleared  out,  and  the 
reeling  is  commenced. 

This  is  the  rude  and  abominably  negligent  mode, 
practised  in  Broussa,  the  great  silk  district  of  Turkey, 
where  the  best  silk  is  produced.  Thus  in  Turkey,  the 
silk-worms  are  reared  in  cities  as  well  as  in  country 
villages,  and  the  food  is  purchased  in  the  market,  these 
cities  and  villages  being  surrounded  by  the  plantations 
of  the  mulberry. 

I have  been  thus  particular  in  describing  the  mode  of 
rearing  silk  in  Turkey,  not  by  any  means  that  I would 
propose  it  as  an  example  for  our  imitation,  but  as  a 
striking  proof  of  the  great  strength  of  constitution  which 
is  possessed  by  the  silk-worms  : and  the  only  mystery 
appears  to  be,  to  comprehend  by  what  power  the  silk- 
worms are  endued,  which  can  enable  them,  thus  situa- 
ted, not  only  to  live  and  survive,  but  also  to  produce  val- 
uable crops. 


SECTION  XXII. 

SPACE  REQUIRED  FOR  SILK-WORMS. 

Five  ounces  of  the  eggs  of  the  silk-worm,  it  is  com- 
puted, will  produce  two  hundred  thousand  silk-worms. 
This  appears  to  be  the  calculation  of  the  Comte  Dando- 
lo,  from  actual  count  of  an  ounce  or  parts  thereof. 

Nothing  but  the  most  disastrous  results  can  be  ex- 
pected as  a consequence,,  from  crowding  the  silk-worms 


SPACE  REQ,UIRED  FOR  SILK-WORMS.  68 

too  close,  and  a too  confined  atmosphere,  and  an  inat- 
tention to  cleanliness.  The  silk-worms  should  in  no 
age  be  confined  so  close  as  to  come  in  contact.  An  error 
in  these  points  may  prove  fatal,  and  may  cause  a total 
destruction  by  inducing  malignant  diseases. 

With  regard  to  the  space  which  is  necessary  on 
the  hurdles,  for  five  ounces,  or  two  hundred  thousand 
silk-worms  when  full  grown,  the  best  authors  are  much 
at  variance.  Comte  de  Hazzi,  the  professed  disciple  of 
Count  Dandolo  and  M.  Bonafoux,  and  especially  of  the 
latter,  for  the  statements  of  both  are  nearly  in  agree- 
ment, has  stated  that  the  amount  of  space  necessary  at 
each  successive  age  is  as  follows,  in  square  feet : — First 
age,  50  feet : — Second  age,  100  feet : — Third  age,  230 
feet: — Fourth  age,  550  feet: — Fifth  age,  1200  feet,  or 
133  square  yards.  I shall  allow  more  space,  for  reasons 
which  I shall  shortly  state. 

Yet  the  house,  as  a specimen,  of  M.  Bonafoux,  calcu- 
lated for  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  silk-worms  on 
forty  hurdles,  in  stages  or  stories  ten  deep,  and  actually 
containing  eighty  thousand,  was  but  twenty  feet  square, 
twenty  feet  in  height.  For  feeding  this  whole  number, 
forty  hurdles  were  provided  ; each  being  three  feet  wide 
and  fifteen  feet  long,  and  containing  on  their  extreme 
width,  and  length,  two  hundred  square  yards  of  surface. 
These  must  of  necessity  be  piled  on  horizontal  courses 
or  stories,  ten  deep.  But  then  this  house,  so  small, 
stood  alone,  by  the  side  of  a brook,  with  five  windows, 
and  twenty  ventilators  opening  through  the  four  walls 
on  every  side,  and  in  the  roof ; with  a chimney  and  a 
broad  hearth,  for  blazing  and  sudden  flame  fires.  These 
openings  in  the  roof  are  very  important,  as  well  as  the 
space  above. 

The  utmost  extent  therefore,  which  in  this  house  is  al- 
lowed, is  at  the  rate  of  250  square  yards,  or  2250  feet 
for  two  hundred  thousand  silk-worms,  or  in  that  propor- 
tion. 

By  another  account.  Count  Dandolo  has  stated  that 


64 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


he  considers  the  followinff  estimate  as  affordinor  sufficient 

o o 

space  for  a million  silk-worms,  or  in  this  proportion  for 
a greater  or  less  number.  For  the  first  age,  200  square 
feet  of  surface;  for  the  second  age,  375  square  feet;  for 
the  third  age,  875  square  feet ; for  the  fourth  age,  2,062 
feet ; and  for  the  fifth  age,  about  5000  feet  of  surface. 

But  as  the  great  majority  of  writers,  including  M. 
Bonafoux,  have  allowed  more  space  than  Count  Dan« 
dolo  has  by  this  account  allowed,  I shall  consequently 
vary  my  estimate.  Dr.  Pascalis  has  arrived  at  precisely 
the  same  conclusion — he  has  stated  as  from  the  united 
testimony  of  Comte  Dandolo  and  M.  Bonafoux,  that  288 
square  yards  are  required  for  two  hundred  thousand,  and 
12,937  feet,  or  1,438  square  yards  for  one  million  silk- 
worms. 

I have  put  down  therefore  300  yards  of  surface  as  a 
large  allowance  for  two  hundred  thousand,  and  1,500 
square  yards,  or  13,500  feet,  for  one  million  silk-worms. 
And  a building,  or  magnanerie,  twenty-six  feet  wide,  and 
one  hundred  and  thirteen  feet  long,  and  two  stories  high, 
with  double  ranges  of  hurdles  of  five  horizontal  courses 
in  each  story,  will,  in  our  serene  and  salubrious  climate, 
contain  them  all  with  ample  space  for  one  million.  The 
first  authors  are  agreed  that  this  space  is  sufficient,  and 
the  right  allowance. 

Yet  if  the  system  of  successive  crops  is  adopted,  and 
but  four  hundred  thousand  are  hatched  at  a time,  and 
at  intervals  of  seven  days,  then  this  same  building  will 
suffice  for  two  millions  and  five  hundred  thousand, 
which  will  here  find  ample  space  during  the  season. 

The  whole  work  of  feeding  in  succession  by  this  mode, 
would  be  thus  completed  in  seventy-five  days.  There 
are  varieties  of  mulberries  which  will  oft  renew  their 
foliage,  and  with  no  extra  cultivation,  will  continue  in  a 
state  of  vigorous  vegetation  for  more  than  four  months, 
affording  a succession  of  food  during  the  whole  season. 


HABITATIONS,  HURDLES,  &C. 


65 


SECTION  XXIII. 

HABITATIONS,  OR  MAGNANERIE,  HURDLES,  &c. 

We  have  seen  that  the  silk-worm  is  a hardy  insect 
which  is  capable  of  sustaining  life,  and  of  enduring, 
unprotected,  cold  storms  of  rain,  of  wind,  and  of  thunder. 
If,  however,  mankind  would  assume  absolute  and  exclu- 
sive claims  to  the  labors  of  the  silk-worm,  it  becomes 
necessary  that  they  should  at  least  afford  them  their 
needful  and  friendly  protection.  The  silk-worms  re- 
quire a shelter  or  habitation  adapted  to  their  wants  and 
comfort,  equal  in  its  style  and  structure  to  those  which 
are  required  for  the  protection  of  our  flocks  and  our 
herds,  and  our  other  domestic  animals 

In  Italy,  France,  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  where 
silk  forms  a branch  of  industry  of  the  first  importance, 
the  hovels  of  the  peasant,  the  barns  and  other  outbuild- 
ings of  the  more  wealthy,  serve  for  a season  the  pur- 
poses of  the  silk-worm.  In  India,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  and,  in  other  hot  countries,  the  silk-worms  are 
sheltered  in  buildings  of  a more  light  and  airy  struc- 
ture, and  covered  with  thatch.  In  Connecticut  and 
other  climates  equally  favored,  good  silk  has  been  rais- 
ed in  sheds  and  barns,  and  other  outbuildings,  which 
answer  well.  Shelter  is  alike  necessary  to  defend  from 
cold  winds  and  humid  currents  of  air,  and  from  storms, 
as  well  as  from  their  natural  enemies.  These  enemies 
of  the  silk-worm  include  poultry,  and  birds  of  all  other 
kinds  which  prey  on  insects;  also  cats,  mice  and  rats, 
and  ants;  these  last  are  excluded  from  their  approaches 
by  surrounding  the  pillars  of  the  stagings,  either  with 
quick  lime,  or  some  glutinous  substance,  or  the  posts 
are  set  in  basins  of  water. 

The  houses  for  silk-worms  should  be  in  airy  situa- 
tions; they  may  be  built  of  one  or  two  stories,  and  may 


66 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


be  constructed  of  rough  boards,  matched  or  tongued. 
They  should  be  provided  with  numerous  windows  of 
glass ; light  being  essential  to  the  health  of  the  silk- 
worms, and  perpetual  darkness  injurious. 

In  their  own  native  woods,  do  they  not  enjoy  the 
brightness  of  day  and  of  sunshine,  with  no  other  protec- 
tion from  the  excessive  heat  of  its  rays  than  the  shadow 
of  a leaf?  It  has  also  been  remarked  by  an  accurate 
observer,  that  ‘‘  on  the  side  on  which  the  sun  shone  di- 
rectly on  the  hurdles,  the  silkworms  were  more  nume- 
rous than  in  those  parts  of  the  hurdles  which  were  in 
the  shade.”  Protection  is  however  needful  from  the 
direct  rays  of  a too  powerful  sun.  Gratings  of  lath,  or 
of  iron  wire,  a quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  may 
protect  the  openings  of  the  windows.  These  should  be 
principally  on  the  south  side.  Beneath  the  windows, 
and  on  a level  with  the  floor,  are  openings  : and  nume- 
rous other  openings  and  doors  in  the  sides  should  also 
be  provided  for  the  admission  of  fresh  air;  fresh  air 
being  as  natural  and  indispensable  to  the  insect  as  light 
and  life. 

These  openings  at  the  sides  are  furnished  with  slides  ; 
a small  strip  of  board  connecting  all  the  openings  on  a 
side  of  a whole  extensive  and  continuous  range,  may 
serve  as  a common  handle,  by  which  all  may  thus,  in  an 
instant,  be  opened  and  shut.  Near  the  top,  or  more 
properly  in  the  roof,  are  numerous  other  openings,  or 
ventilators,  through  which  the  impure  air  will  pass  out. 
These  in  the  roof  may  be  of  boards  or  of  thick  glass, 
for  the  admission  of  light,  and  may  be  provided  with 
slides  or  open  with  cords,  which  may  be  so  connected, 
that  all  may  be  opened  or  shut  in  the  same  moment  of 
time.  Corresponding  openings  are  left  in  the  floor 
beneath. 

One  or  more  chimneys  may  be  added,  with  broad 
hearths  for  light  combustibles  or  fuel,  and  sudden  or 
flame  fires.  These  however,  are  only  for  occasional 
use ; they  serve  suddenly  to  put  in  motion,  and  to  rec- 


HABITATIONS,  HURDLES,  k,C. 


67 


tify  or  expel  a stagnant  and  moist  atmosphere  ; render- 
ing it  at  once,  more  healthy  and  electrical.  A stove, 
also,  for  heated  air,  or  provided  with  a common  funnel, 
will  be  useful,  as  it  will  serve,  on  any  extraordinary  oc- 
casion, to  warm  the  apartment,  in  case  of  long  and  cold 
storms,  which  sometimes  occur,  and  may  be  of  occa- 
sional use;  although  I am  assured,  that  in  our  climate, 
and  in  Connecticut,  fire  is  never  used  in  the  apartments 
of  silk-worms  : still  its  occasional  use  may  be  necessary 
for  their  comfort,  as  it  inspires  new  life. 

In  the  great  laboratories  of  Italy,  Count  Dandolo  has 
directed  that  broad  fire  places  should  be  placed,  one  at 
each  corner,  and  two  on  each  side  of  the  centre,  and  a 
stove  of  stone  or  tile  in  the  middle,  in  preference  to 
stoves  of  iron.  But  now,  and  in  France,  they  are  warmed 
at  times  by  hot  water  in  pipes  of  iron. 

In  case  of  extreme  cold,  we  have  the  remedy  always 
at  hand.  But  when  the  sun  pours  down  its  rays  with 
the  most  intense  heat,  there  is  no  remedy  but  to  throw 
wide  open  the  doors,  the  windows,  and  the  ventilators, 
and  close  the  blinds,  except  artificial  currents  of  air  are 
produced. 

During  hot  nights,  also,  the  windows  are  kept  open 
from  evening  till  morning,  except  in  damp  or  wet  wea- 
ther. Yet  the  greater  danger  being  from  cold,  on  the 
slightest  indication  of  a cold  night,  you  may  light  up  a 
fire  in  the  fire  place  or  stove,  and  renew  it  if  necessary. 

The  insects  are  fed  on  thin  boards  or  hurdles;  these 
should  be  three  feet  in  width,  and  six  in  length,  run- 
ning lengthwise  of  the  apartment,  and  supported  by 
ranges  of  posts.  To  prevent  the  access  of  destructive 
ants,  the  posts  may  be  immersed  in  basins  of  water,  or 
the  whole  staging  may  receive  its  support  from  iron 
wires  or  rods,  suspended  from  the  timbers  above. 

The  buildings  for  sheltering  and  feeding  the  silk- 
worms are  called  in  France  a magnanerie,  and  in  Italy, 
at  the  present  day,  they  are  called  dandolieres.  Impro- 
perly with  us,  they  are  sometimes  called  cocoonieres,  a 
name  which  only  belongs  to  the  building  where  the 


68 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


cocoons  are  dried  and  preserved  for  reeling,  after  the 
chrysalides  are  destroyed.  I have  described  the  dimen- 
sions of  a magnanerie,  in  the  last  section,  of  a size  suit- 
able for  containing  1,000,000  silk-worms.  An  extensive 
building  should  be  of  oblong  form,  and  containing  two 
double  ranges  of  stagings,  with  an  aisle  six  feet  wide 
through  the  centre,  and  two  other  aisles  of  three  or  four 
feet  in  width,  running  lengthwise  next  the  walls  ; for 
these  stagings  should  never  be  connected  with  the  out- 
side walls.  Thin  light  boards  will  answer,  with  thin 
ledges  at  the  edges  to  confine  the  insects  : these  slide 
into  their  places,  and  rest  on  their  ends  on  narrow  strips 
of  boards  which  are  nailed  to  the  upright  posts.  They 
are  arranged  one  above  another  in  five  courses  or  stories, 
at  the  distance  of  fifteen  inches  asunder,  the  lowest 
eighteen  inches  from  the  floor.  More  properly,  these 
hurdles  may  be  formed  of  canes  or  rattans,  or  split  bas- 
ket stuff,  as  these  being  light,  are  more  easily  cleaned 
and  dried,  with  intervals  of  a quarter  of  an  inch  square 
to  admit  the  air  to  circulate  through. 

Netting  of  twine,  attached  to  the  bottom  of  a square 
frame  of  inch  boards,  forms  a fine  hurdle,  and  is  deem- 
ed a valuable  improvement,  as  it  saves  much  labor. 
The  silk-worms  are  fed  on  this  netting,  and  the  litter 
passes  through.  The  netting  is  secured  to  the  frame 
by  common  brads,  and  may  be  either  formed  by  simply 
stretching  the  twine  first  in  one  direction,  and  then 
crossing  it  and  weaving  wholly  by  hand,— or  it  may  be 
wove  by  machinery  ; a few  very  thin  laths  may  be  placed 
edgewise,  at  suitable  intervals,  as  supports  to  the  netting. 
The  meshes  are  half  an  inch  wide  or  a little  more. 
Underneath  are  slides  of  paper  for  receiving  the  litter, 
which  all  passes  through.  The  slides  are  placed  so 
near,  that  if  by  accident  the  silk-worm  gets  through,  he 
may  either  continue  feeding  below,  or,  by  reaching  up- 
wards, he  miy  recover  hi^  former  station  on  the  netting, 
at  a fresh  feeding.  If  a hurdle  of  this  description,  and 
covered  with  fresh  leaves,  be  placed  on  ledges,  at  the 


HABITATIONS,  HURDLES,  &LC,  69 

distance  of  half  an  inch  or  an  inch  above  a shelf  or 
other  hurdle  containing  silk-worms,  the  insects  will  in- 
stantly and  altogether  ascend.  Thus  are  the  insects 
preserved  from  the  annoyance  of  their  litter,  which  is 
thus  easily  removed,  and  a free  current  and  circulation 
of  air  is  preserved.  The  hurdles  for  the  silk-worms  in 
the  first  age  are  formed  of  no  other  material  than  paper  ; 
those  of  the  second  age  may  be  fed  on  paper,  on  boards,, 
or  on  netting  of  a finer  description  than  above  stated. 

Before  the  silk-worms  are  prepared  to  spin,  the  net- 
ting should  be  elevated  four  inches  above  the  board, 
otherwise  some  of  the  most  forward  worms  may  begin 
to  form  their  cocoons  in  the  space  between.  These 
slides  may  be  of  stiff  oiled  paper,  sustained  by  laths,  or 
they  may  be  of  thin  boards. 

This  mode  of  feeding  the  silk-worms  was  first  intro- 
duced particularly  to  notice  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Swayne 
of  England.  His  plan,  however,  differed  a little  from 
that  which  I have  described  ; the  hurdle  for  the  silk- 
worms of  the  first  age  being  of  paper  ; those  for  the 
second  and  third  age  were  of  catgut  with  threads  one 
tenth  of  an  inch  asunder. 

The  plan  of  feeding  has  been  tried  by  many,  both  in 
Europe  and  in  America  with  the  most  perfect  success. 
When  the  silk-worms  are  sufficiently  large  to  be  no 
longer  in  danger  of  falling  through  the  netting,  the 
paper  slides  may  be  removed  at  times,  and  this  will 
allow  a free  circulation  of  air  upwards  or  downwards 
through  the  netting. 

In  America,  the  plan  has  been  recommended  by  Mr. 
Smith,  and  has  been  tried  by  others,  and  promises  to 
be  eminently  useful,  by  ensuring  a more  perfect  de- 
gree of  health  to  the  insect,  and  an  important  economy 
and  saving  of  full  half  the  labor  in  this  department. 


70 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


SECTION  XXIV. 

AMOUNT  OF  FOOD. 

According  to  Count  Dandolo,  five  ounces  of  eggs 
will  furnish  two  hundred  thousand  silk-worms,  which 
will  consume  seven  thousand  pounds  of  leaves;  and  one 
hundred  trees  great  and  small,  will  furnish  the  food  for 
all,  and  twenty-one  pounds  of  leaves  will  furnish  food 
for  one  pound  of  cocoons. 

Count  de  Hazzi,  from  the  sources  above  named, 
calculates  that  two  hundred  thousand  silk-worms  require 
ten  thousand  pounds  of  leaves  in  the  different  stages  of 
their  existence,  in  the  following  proportions : In  the  first 
age,  50  lbs. ; second  age,  150  lbs. ; third  age,  460  lbs.  ; 
fourth  age,  1390  lbs.;  but  in  the  fifth  and  last  age, 
which  usually  comprises  near  one  third  of  the  brief  ex- 
istence of  the  silk  worm,  they  will  require  7950  lbs. 

It  is  evident  that  the  curious  tables  of  the  progress 
of  the  insects  which  some  of  the  best  authors  have 
given  us,  can  be  no  sure  guide,  even  with  a regulated 
atmosphere.  The  progress,  space,  and  the  time  and 
proportion  of  food,  which  will  be  required  for  the 
40,000  silk-worms  which  are  hatched  from  one  ounce  of 
eggs,  from  their  birth  till  the  time  they  begin  to  spin, 
as  has  been  given  by  M.  Bonafoux,  I will  here  state  in 
the  abstract.  In  the  first  age,  7 pounds  of  leaves  are 
consumed;  in  the  second,  21  ; in  the  third,  69  pounds 
12  ounces ; in  the  fourth,  210 ; and  in  the  fifth,  or  after 
the  fourth  moulting,  1281  pounds.  In  the  consump- 
tion of  their  food,  their  progress,  though  irregular  in 
the  detail,  is  uniform  on  the  whole.  On  the  third  day 
from  birth,  they  consume  3 pounds  of  leaves ; on  the 
fourth,  but  1 pound  6 oupces;  on  the  fifth  day  they  be- 
gin to  cast  their  skins,  and,  being  sick  and  torpid,  they 
consume  but  6 ounces.  In  their  second  age,  and  on 


AMOUNT  OF  FOOD. 


71 


the  first  day,  they  consume  4 pounds  8 ounces,  thus 
atoning  for  previous  abstinence ; on  the  third  day,  7^ 
pounds;  but  on  the  fourth  day,  comes  on  the  moulting 
sickness,  and  they  eat  no  more  than  pounds.  In 
the  third  age  and  first  day,  they  consume  6f  pounds ; 
on  the  second  day,  21^;  on  the  third  day,  22^ 
pounds ; on  the  fourth,  12^  pounds ; and  but 
pounds  on  the  fifth  day;  on  the  sixth  day,  they  become 
sick,  and  take  no  food,  this  being  a critical  period  ; they 
cast  their  skin  for  the  third  time.  On  the  first  day  of 
the  fourth  age,  23|^  pounds  are  consumed ; but  on  the 
seventh,  they  eat  absolutely  nothing,  and  are  again  tor- 
pid, this  being  the  critical  period  ; they  cast  off  their 
skins  for  the  fourth  time.  In  the  fifth  age  and  first  day, 
they  consume  42  pounds;  on  the  sixth  day,  they  be- 
come most  of  all  voracious,  and  consume  223  pounds; 
from  this  time,  their  appetite  daily  lessens,  until  the 
tenth  day,  when  they  consume  only  56  pounds.  The 
silk-worms,  which  at  their  birth  occupied  but  9 feet  on 
the  hurdles;  now  require  239  feet  of  space,  and  the  whole 
quantity  of  food  consumed,  is  1600  pounds. 

According  to  another  account  or  Diary  of  M.  Bona- 
foux,  two  hundred  thousand  silk-worms  were  sustained 
on  seventy-two  hundred  pounds  of  leaves.  But  it  is  ad- 
mitted that  a certain  quantity  of  leaves  were  given  in 
the  intermediate  meals,  which  were  not  reckoned  in  the 
account;  also,  that  in  the  first  stages  the  leaves  were 
chopped,  which  enables  the  silk-worms  to  consume  them 
without  waste.  Other  and  authentic  accounts  make  the 
amount  of  food  consumed  even  less  than  five  thousand 
pounds.  We  will  admit  9000.  But  much  must  neces- 
sarily depend  on  care  and  economy  in  feeding. 

The  quantity  of  food  consumed  depends  also  in 
some  measure  on  the  season  ; if  that  be  moist,  the  leaves 
will  contain  less  nourishment,  and  consequently  more 
weight  of  food  will  be  required  ; but  if  on  the  contrary  the 
season  be  dry,  less  quantities  will  be  required,  as  the 
leaves  contain  much  more  nourishment. 


72 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


Something  also  depends  on  the  species  or  variety  of 
mulberry  which  is  used.  The  Morus  multicaulis  hav- 
ing no  gross  or  coarse  fibres,  it  is  found  that  a less 
quantity  of  food  of  this  species,  will  suffice  for  the  pre* 
cious  insects. 


SECTION  XXV. 

LABOR  AND  ATTENDANCE. 

Mr.  D’Homergue  has  stated,  that  where  the  mulberry 
trees  are  convenient,  as  they  always  should  be,  two  wo- 
men are  sufficient  to  gather  the  leaves,  and  attend  to 
four  ounces  of  eggs,  making,  at  thirty-five  thousand  to 
the  ounce,  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand,  until  the 
fourth  moulting,  when  more  will  be  necessary,  especially 
in  the  last  ten  days.  Mr.  Duponceau,  says  Mr.  Cobb, 
raised  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  seven  ounces  of  eggs 
with  the  labor  of  two  persons,  and  those  not  fully  em- 
ployed except  the  last  ten  days ; and  some  occasional 
help,  who  were  employed  to  bring  the  leaves  from  the 
country  two  miles  distant.  Mr.  Smith,  a gentleman 
who  has  paid  much  attention  to  the  subject,  and  one  on 
whom  we  may  rely,  has  assured  us,  that  the  labor  re- 
quired to  attend  one  million  silk-worms  would  be,  in 
the  first  week,  two  persons  ; for  the  second,  four  ; for 
the  third,  eight ; for  the  remaining  two,  fifteen  to  twenty. 
Most  of  these  may  be  boys,  girls,  or  aged  women. 

The  gathering  of  seventy-five  pounds  of  leaves  is  con- 
sidered a day’s  work,  for  a child  of  from  nine  to  twelve 
years  of  age  in  Connecticut,  where  the  trees  are  large. 
But  thrice  this  amount  might  be  gathered,  or  even  more 
than  four  times,  from  Dwarf  Mulberry  tree  plantations, 
in  their  prime  state;  a^id  especially  hedges  of  the  new 
large  leaved  varieties. 


HATCHING  THE  INSECTS. 


73 


SECTION  XXVI. 

HATCHING  THE  INSECTS. 

The  eggs  of  the  silk-worm  are  of  a pale  slate,  or 
dark  lilac  color,  and  of  the  size  of  a pin’s  head ; those 
of  a yellow  color  are  imperfect ; but  the  color  of  good 
eggs  is  often  given  to  bad  ones  by  washing  in  dark  col- 
ored and  muddy  wine.  When  the  mulberry  begins  to 
unfold  its  leaf,  and  the  largest  have  grown  to  an  inch  in 
diameter,  which  in  our  climate,  lat.  42^  23',  is  towards 
the  last  of  May,  and  in  settled  fair  weather,  let  the  pa- 
pers which  contain  the  eggs  be  placed  on  tables  in  a 
sitting  room  of  a comfortable  warmth,  with  windows 
facing  the  south,  but  without  exposing  them  to  the  sun. 
In  such  a situation,  the  warmth  of  the  atmosphere  which 
is  usually  produced  by  the  sun,  is  sufficient  to  hatch  the 
eggs.  When  the  eggs  assume  a whitish  color,  or  in 
about  ten  days,  lay  over  them  coarse  muslin,  or  sheets 
of  white  paper  pierced  full  of  holes,  one  twelfth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  or  of  the  size  of  a large  knitting  nee- 
dle, turned  up  at  the  edges  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
silk-worm.  Lay  over  the  paper  twigs  containing  the 
young  leaves  of  the  mulberry  ; and  the  insects,  attracted 
by  the  smell  of  the  leaves,  crawl  through  the  holes  and 
fall  to  feeding.  Those  few  silk-worms  that  hatch  on  the 
first  day,  should  be  placed  in  a cooler  situation  than 
those  which  come  out  on  the  second  day,  or  stinted  in 
their  supply  of  food,  that  they  may  be  no  more  forward 
than  the  rest.  Twice  a day  the  worms  which  are  thus 
hatched,  are  transferred  to  the  shelves  allotted  to  those 
of  the  first  age  and  allowed  suitable  space.  Being  care- 
ful to  preserve  each  day’s  hatching  by  itself,  and  mark- 
ing the  date  on  the  hurdle.  All  usually  are  hatched  in 
from  48  to  72  hours.  Fortunately,  the  systematic  and 
precise  directions  for  hatching  the  eggs  which  I have 


74 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


described  as  practised  in  Italy,  are  not  required  by  us  in 
our  highly  favored  climate.  ’ 


SECTION  XXVII. 

REMARKS  ON  FEEDING,  AND  QUALITY  OF  FOOD,  &c. 

The  quantity  of  silk  which  the  insects  afford,  is  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  food  consumed.  The  du- 
ration of  the  silk-worm  is  prolonged  by  a cool  season, 
and  by  scanty  or  irregular  supplies  of  food,  but  the 
amount  of  silk,  is  in  this  case,  greatly  diminished.  When 
a crop  of  silk-worms  thus  linger,  either  through  cold  or 
famine,  for  forty  days,  the  amount  of  silk  which  they  afford 
is  but  inconsiderable  ; while  the  bounteous  harvest  afford- 
ed by  a crop  of  silk-worms,  fully  fed  and  well  attended, 
which  in  a warm  temperature,  finish  their  labors  in 
twenty-four  days,  will  produce  more  than  a double 
amount  of  silk.  The  silk-worm  feeds  night  and  day, 
and  the  more  it  is  fed  the  faster  it  grows,  and  the  sooner 
it  will  come  to  maturity  ; and  in  proportion  to  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  insect,  will  be  the  size  of  the  cocoon,  and 
the  amount  of  silk  produced. 

A certain  quantity  of  food  being  Indispensable  to  sus- 
tain life,  and  the  amount  of  silk  which  is  afforded,  being 
of  itself  wholly  the  production  of  the  excess  of  the  food 
consumed,  it  follows  as  a consequence  that  to  feed  them 
profitably  they  must  be  fed  well. 

In  Persia  they  feed  the  silk-worms  with  branches,  this 
being  considered  the  most  economical  mode  for  a hot 
climate,  as  the  leaves  retain  their  freshness  and  flavor 
for  a longer  time,  being  devoured  with  less  waste. 

The  Italians  insist  on\cutting  the  leaves  fine;  but  Mr. 
Smith  and  some  others  in  America  have  rejected  this 
mode,  after  trial,  as  the  silk-worms  tread  down  the 


REMARKS  ON  FEEDING,  SlC. 


75 


cut  leaves,  passing  over  them  and  causing  waste.  They 
prefer  twigs  or  small  branches,  as  the  leaves  keep  longer 
in  this  state,  or  until  consumed,  and  are  more  consonant 
to  the  natural  habits  of  the  worms.  It  has  also  been  no- 
ticed that  the  worms  avoid  the  cut  edges,  and  attack  the 
leaf  in  any  other  part  in  preference.  A dozen  leaves 
torn  in  pieces  at  each  feeding,  will  support  a great  many 
worms  during  the  1st,  2d,  3d  and  4th  days,  and  but  a 
very  few  leaves  will  suffice  during  the  first  ten  days. 
Constant  attention  will  soon  enable  the  intelligent  at- 
tendant to  discover  the  quantity  of  food  necessary,  and 
to  avoid  on  the  one  hand  stinting  them  in  the  needful 
quantity,  or  on  the  other  hand  a needless  waste  by  over 
supplies  of  food. 

The  young  leaves,  being  replete  with  moisture,  are  the 
only  suitable  food  for  the  young  silk-worms,  as  their 
bodies  transpire  largely  : and  as  the  mature  leaves  con- 
tain a greater  proportion  of  solid  and  nutritive  food,  so 
they  are  the  only  suitable  food  for  the  silk-worms  of  a 
more  advanced  age. 

Leaves  of  a crude  and  watery  consistence,  like  wet 
leaves,  occasion  disease — leaves  which  contain  the  most 
nourishment,  being  alone  the  most  suitable.  The  best 
leaves  are  produced  in  dry  seasons  and  on  dry  soils,  and 
on  the  trees  of  a more  advanced  growth. 

In  the  early  or  first  ages  of  the  silk-worm,  the  amount 
of  food  consumed  is  very  small ; but  the  amount  is  very 
great  in  the  last  age,  as  their  dimensions  and  bulk  are 
wonderfully  increased. 

If  the  longitudinal  dimensions  of  the  insect  be  com- 
pared during  the  different  ages,  and  their  length  at 
hatching  being  unity,  or  1,  then  at  the  end  of  their  first 
age,  their  length  will  be  4 ; at  the  end  of  the  second 
age,  6 ; at  the  end  of  the  third  age,  12 ; at  the  end  of 
the  4th  age,  20  ; at  the  end  of  the  fifth  age,  40. 

I have  shown  in  the  history  of  the  silk-worm,  at  p.  18 
and  19,  that  the  duration  of  the  insect  is  prolonged  by 
cold  ; on  the  contrary,  the  vital  functions  of  the  silk- 


76 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


worm  are  accelerated  by  warmth,  and  also  by  the  de- 
gree of  attention  which  is  bestowed  on  them. 

In  a regulated  temperature,  or  such  a temperature 
as  Count  Dandolo  has  prescribed,  and  where  the 
heat  indicated  by  the  thermometer  is  gradually  reduced 
from  75  deg.  on  the  first  day  to  68  deg.  on  the 
last,  though  the  weather  is  constantly  growing  warmer ; 
in  a temperature  thus  regulated,  their  various  changes 
or  moultings  usually  occur  on  the  5th,  9th,  15th  and 
22d  days,  and  they  usually  will  quit  feeding  on  the  32d 
day.  But  in  warm  climates,  as  I have  shown,  the  vari- 
ous mutations  or  changes  are  hastened ; but  it  seems 
agreed,  that  the  amount  of  food  consumed  is  the  same. 
It  is  evident  that  the  Diary,  which  I shall  omit,  is  only 
for  the  regulated  temperature. 


SECTION  XXVIII. 

FEEDING,  CARE  AND  ATTENTION. 

1st  Age.  The  eggs  of  the  silk-worm  being  hatched 
by  the  natural  warmth  of  the  atmosphere,  are  removed 
to  papers  placed  on  the  hurdles.  They  are  of  a black 
color,  one  twelfth  of  an  inch  in  length  ; those  of  a red 
color  may  be  thrown  away.  Feed  with  but  a small  quan- 
tity of  the  young  leaves  or  branches  at  a time : these  leaves 
may  be  torn,  as  the  worms  eat  them  with  less  w^aste : 
feed  them  four  times  during  the  twenty-four  hours. 
When  the  young  brood  are  piled  too  close,  a part  may 
be  removed  on  the  young  twigs  or  branches.  They  eat 
well  for  about  three  days,  when  they  grow  torpid,  and 
must  not  be  disturbed  till  they  awake.  You  need  not 
remove  the  litter  during\this  stage ; but  during  the  two 
following  stages,  remove  the  litter  to  a table  in  an  apart- 
ment separate,  and  strew  over  a few  leaves,  and  you  will 


FEEDING,  CARE  AND  ATTENTION.  77 

recover  any  lost  worms.  After  each  and  every  succes- 
sive change,  their  appetite  increases  daily  more  and 
more,  but  gradually  diminishes  as  their  change  ap- 
proaches. 

2d  Age.  The  silk-worm  now  awakes  hungry ; but 
let  those  which  awake  too  soon,  still  hunger,  till  all  are 
awake,  that  all  may  be  equal ; they  have  now  become  of 
a dark  ash  color ; feed  them  for  about  two  days  with 
branches,  and  with  young  leaves  and  branches,  or  older 
leaves  torn  fine,  when  they  will  grow  torpid  and  are  not 
to  be  disturbed.  The  litter  during  this  stage  is  to  be 
often  removed.  You  may  bait  the  silk-worms  to  any 
corner  of  the  hurdle  by  a few  leaves  when  you  choose, 
for  the  purpose  of  sweeping  the  litter.  Or  you  may 
remove  them  to  other  shelves  or  hurdles  on  branches. 

3d  Ao:e.  Continue  feeding  the  silk-worms  with  full- 
grown  leaves.  The  silk-worms  are  now  of  a light  gray 
color,  and  the  mouth  with  which  they  saw  their  food  is 
changed  in  color,  white  and  soft,  but  soon  becomes 
hard  and  black,  continually  growing  harder  with  every 
successive  change.  Place  over  them  the  hurdles  of 
twine  netting  covered  with  leaves,  and  they  will  all  pass 
upwards ; or  remove  them  on  leaves.  Clear  the  litter 
often — once  a day  at  least. 

4th  Age.  In  this  age  the  silk-worms  are  of  a whitish 
flesh  color,  except  the  spotted  species  called  tigres, 
their  head  and  body  has  become  enlarged.  Their  appe- 
tite becomes  voracious.  The  coarsest  leaves  are  now 
greedily  devoured. 

5th  Age,  and  last.  Their  color  has  now  become  of 
a dusky  gray  with  a reddish  hue,  they  continue  how- 
ever growing  whiter  for  about  seven  days,  when  they 
gradually  become  of  a yellow  color,  their  backs  become 
shining,  and  their  mouths  of  a red  color.  Bags  of 
leaves  are  now  introduced  and  distributed ; they  now 
devour  incredible  quantities  of  full  grown  leaves : even 
the  coarsest  leaves  are  equally  valuable,  and  night  and 
day  they  must  be  fed  to  the  full.  Their  time  now  be- 


78 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


ing  short  must  be  improved  continually,  and  to  the  ut- 
most ; for  now  they  hunger  incessantly,  and  the  more 
they  eat,  and  the  faster  they  feed,  the  more  abundant 
will  be  the  produce  of  silk.  During  this  and  the  for- 
mer age,  abundance  of  litter  will  collect  from  prunings 
or  straggling  branches  and  the  stalks  of  the  leaves — all 
must  be  removed  at  frequent  intervals,  and  when  the 
warmth  of  the  atmosphere  will  admit,  as  in  the  former 
ages,  the  numerous  windows  in  the  roof  and  sides  must 
be  opened,  to  preserve  a pure  atmosphere.  When  the 
atmosphere  is  damp,  it  must  be  excluded ; and  the  litter 
removed  the  oftener,  lest  pestilence  should  ensue.  If 
you  use  the  netting  which  I have  described  and  recom- 
mended, it  may  save  you  much  labor,  and  will  be  emi- 
nently conducive  to  their  health.  They  delight  in  all 
the  latter  stages  in  a cool,  fresh  and  pure  atmosphere. 
When  the  weather  is  parching,  hot  and  dry,  sprinkle 
the  floor  with  water  occasionally,  and  keep  shallow 
vessels  filled  with  water  to  rectify  the  air.  Rectify  a 
hot,  moist  and  stagnant  air  by  sudden  flame  fires.  Chlo- 
ride of  lime  is  now  the  all  sufficient  and  powerful  cure 
for  a bad  atmosphere.  A spoonful  may  be  placed  in  a 
broad  saucer,  and  to  this  five  or  six  times  its  bulk  of 
water  is  added.  These  are  placed  in  various  quarters, 
on  the  floor  of  the  establishment,  and  replenished  every 
three  days.  It  may  be  bought  cheap  at  the  apotheca- 
ries. During  every  age,  and  until  the  silk-worm  has 
ceased  taking  food,  it  never  inclines  to  wander  ; a cir- 
cumstance which  has  rendered  this  insect  wonderfully 
easy  of  control. 


FORMATION  OF  THE  COCOONS. 


79 


SECTION  XXIX. 

FORMATION  OF  THE  COCOONS. 

When  the  silk-worms  become  transparent,  and  of  a 
clear  pearly  color  ; when  they  cease  eating  and  run  to 
and  fro,  looking  upwards  or  trying  to  ascend ; when 
their  skins  about  their  necks  become  wrinkled,  and 
their  bodies  have  a softness  to  the  touch  resembling  soft 
dough,  and  their  backs  become  unusually  shining  ; when 
the  green  circles  round  the  body  contract  and  be- 
come of  a bright  gold  color,  these  are  sure  indications 
that  they  are  prepared  for  their  last  work  of  forming  the 
cocoons.  Then  and  not  before,  the  arbors  are  formed 
from  the  brush  or  twigs  of  the  oak,  with  the  leaves  on, 
which  had  been  before  provided;  and  the  silkworms  are 
concentrated  to  half  the  space  occupied  by  them  before. 
The  leaf  of  the  oak  is  strong,  and  the  cocoon  is  sepa- 
rated from  it  without  injury  by  crumbling  the  leaf. 
These  should  be  cut  and  dried  three  weeks  previous, 
and  preserved  in  readiness  till  required.  They  are 
placed  around  the  edges  of  the  frame  upright  with  the 
top  spread,  forming  arbors  15  inches  or  more  in  width, 
with  circular  heads. 

It  is  important  to  attend  particularly  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  hedges  or  receptacles  for  spinning:  If  the 
air  be  too  much  impeded,  or  the  insects  too  much 
crowded,  many  of  the  cocoons  will  be  double  or  other- 
wise imperfect,  or  the  silkworm  may  be  suffocated  be- 
fore its  labors  are  completed.  Mr.  Gideon  B.  Smith, 
of  Baltimore,  prefers  broom  corn,  which  is  placed  press- 
ing against  the  shelf  above  and  in  a spreading  position. 
The  oak  leaves  are  used  by  Mr.  Cobb.  Dr.  Pascalis 
has  found  that  two  hurdles  formed  of  split  canes  or 
rattans  and  secured  together  by  hooks  and  staples  at 
top  and  bottom,  and  placed  vertically,  a little  inclining. 


80 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


and  an  inch,  or  an  inch  and  a quarter  asunder,  answer 
admirably ; the  front  one  should  be  elevated  an  inch, 
that  the  insects  may  find  a passage  upwards  from  be- 
neath. Three  hurdles  placed  together  in  this  mode 
will  form  two  spaces,  which  the  silk-worms  soon  find 
and  fill. 

Hurdles  of  the  twine  netting  are  found  to  prove  too 
smooth  to  enable  the  silk-worm  to  attach  firmly  the  co- 
coon: They  might  however  answer  well  if  placed  oppo- 
site a hurdle  of  rough  sawn  laths  and  at  an  inch  dis- 
tance. 

Hurdles  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  wide,  and  three 
feet  long,  are  formed  of  four  strips  of  inch  square  boards. 
The  bottoms  of  these  are  covered  with  very  narrow 
sawed  laths,  with  spaces  of  about  half  an  inch  asunder. 
Two  of  these  are  placed  together  and  secured  by  hooks  ; 
the  space  left  between  the  hurdles  being  but  an  inch. 
Were  the  space  greater  than  this,  dupions,  or  double 
cocoons  would  be  formed,  which  are  considered  of  but 
little  value ; these  being  formed  by  the  united  labors  of 
two  silk-worms,  can  never  but  with  difficulty  be  reeled. 
But  the  space  being  thus  reduced  to  an  inch,  two  silk- 
worms will  seldom  or  never  unite  to  form  dupions,  as 
they  find  not  sufficient  space.  These  thus  connected, 
are  placed  edgewise  or  a little  inclining,  at  each  end  of 
every  hurdle.  When  filled,  they  are  opened,  and  the 
cocoons  are  readily  and  quickly  separated  from  the  hur- 
dles, with  no  rubbish  or  broken  leaves  adhering,  and 
with  great  saving  of  time.  It  usually  requires  the  in- 
sect from  four  to  seven  days  to  form  the  cocoon. 

During  the  first  day  the  insect  forms  a loose  oval 
structure  of  thin  irregular  coarse  threads  called  floss. 
Within  this  structure  during  the  three  following  days,  it 
forms  the  silken  ball,  not  however  in  concentric  circles, 
but  by  irregular  movements  backwards  and  forwards  in 
spots.  The  silken  fibr^  is  covered  with  a gum  which 
contributes  to  exclude  the  water. 

Sometimes  even  after  its  ascent  among  the  branches. 


MALADIES  OF  THE  SILK-WORMS. 


81 


the  sill^-wornn  will  look  back  and  descend  once  more  for 
the  last  time  to  partake  of  food.  Sometimes  also  during 
the  last  period,  and  previous  to  the  ascent  of  the  insects 
to  form  their  cocoons,  some  of  them  appear  languid. 
Anciently  it  was  found  efficacious  to  introduce  fried  on- 
ions to  the  apartments — the  pungency  of  the  odor  of 
which,  while  it  induces  some  to  partake  with  an  appetite 
their  last  meal,  will  inspirit  others  to  ascend  to  their  last 
labors.  But  in  modern  times  it  has  been  found,  that 
simply  removing  those  silk-worms  which  thus  languish 
during  the  last  stages,  to  a warmer  temperature,  wnll 
never  fail  to  inspire  them  with  renewed  life. 

Ventilation  is  very  important  during  the  period  while 
the  insects  are  peforming  their  last  labor ; yet  in  no  case 
is  a due  and  comfortable  degree  of  warmth  more  needed 
than  while  the  insect  is  forming  its  cocoon,  as  this  ena- 
bles them  to  draw  forth  and  to  surrender  the  whole 
amount  of  silk  which  they  had  laid  up  in  store. 


SECTION  XXX. 

MALADIES  OF  THE  SILK-WORMS. 

Diseases  of  silk-worms,  like  epidemics  in  crowded 
cities,  when  they  do  occur,  are  generally  caused  from 
want  of  air  and  space,  or  from  being  fed  with  wet  leaves, 
or  from  inattention  to  strict  cleanliness,  and  want  of  a 
frequent  change  or  of  wholesome  air.  Whenever  any 
of  them  appear  sickly,  they  are  to  be  removed  to  a sep- 
arate corner  or  apartment,  and  placed  by  themselves  on 
a separate  hurdle,  called  the  hospital,  that  they  may  not 
infect  the  atmosphere,  and  spread  contagion.  A very 
damp  state  of  the  air  of  long  continuance  being  un- 
wholesome, is  to  be  corrected  by  flame  fires. 

Chloride  of  LimCy  which  is  now  used  so  extensively 


82 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


in  bleaching,  in  cotton  and  paper  manufactories,  has  been 
lately  found  an  antidote  to  the  plague  of  Cairo  in  Egypt, 
when  sprinkled  daily  on  the  floors.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  cheap,  convenient  and  powerful  agents  which  can 
be  employed  in  neutralizing  the  pernicious  effects  of 
mephitic  vapors,  and  rectifying  the  impure  air  which 
arises  in  hot,  damp  weather,  or  from  neglect  in  silk- 
worm establishments.  It  is  not  only  the  effectual  pre- 
ventive but  the  all-sufficient  remedy  for  epidemic  disease. 
A spoonful  or  two  may  be  placed  in  a broad  saucer  or 
plate  and  covered  with  five  or  six  times  its  bulk  of  water, 
and  replenished  every  three  days.  Diseases  of  silk- 
worms are  few  or  absolutely  none,  where  things  are 
rightly  managed.  Count  Dandolo  was  even  obliged  to 
have  recourse  to  others  for  the  knowledge  of  diseases 
which  were  unknown  in  his  establishment.  Yet  when 
diseases  do  occur  among  silk-worms,  they  appear  to 
arise  principally  from  a damp,  stagnant,  or  mephitic  at- 
mosphere, a want  of  cleanliness,  or  improper  food,  con- 
sisting of  wet  leaves,  or  leaves  which  have  partially  un- 
dergone fermentation. 

By  evaporation,  as  well  as  by  respiration,  an  incredi- 
ble quantity  of  fluid  of  an  unwholesome  nature  is  con- 
tinually disengaged  from  the  bodies  of  the  insects.  Ef- 
fectual measures  should  be  taken  to  disperse  this  source 
of  disease.  This  unwholesome  atmosphere,  says  Count 
Dandolo,  operates  as  a continual  conspiracy  against 
their  health  and  life ; and  their  capacity  of  resisting  and 
living  through  it,  proves  them  to  be  possessed  of  very 
great  strength  of  constitution.  It  is  even  affirmed  that 
in  high  and  dry  situations,  where  the  temperature  is  be- 
tween 68  deg.  and  70  deg.  and  the  air  preserved  in  the 
apartments  in  a dry  and  pure  state,  that  disease  cannot 
enter,  and  the  silk-worms  will  remain  as  healthy  as  on 
their  own  native  trees,  and  with  full  feeding  the  crop 
will  be  as  abundant.  \ 


COCOONS  FOR  PRODUCING  EGGS. 


83 


SECTION  XXXI. 

COCOONS  FOR  PRODUCING  EGGS. 

Select  for  seed,  the  best  cocoons ; those  which  are 
of  largest  size,  and  feel  firm,  and  are  of  a bright  color; 
an  equal  number  of  males  and  females.  The  male  co- 
coons are  slender,  depressed  in  the  middle,  and  pointed 
at  both  ends.  The  female  cocoons  are  of  larger  size, 
of  a rounder  form,  and  resemble  in  shape  a hen’s  egg. 
Some  have  recommended  to  reserve  the  dupions  for 
hatching.  Having  stripped  the  floss,  they  may  be  strung 
together  by  threads,  being  careful  not  to  pierce  the  co- 
coon, and  hung  up  to  the  wainscot  in  festoons ; or  they 
may  be  placed  in  a single  layer,  in  open  paper  boxes,  on 
shelves  or  tables,  in  a darkened,  retired,  and  warm,  airy, 
room  or  chamber.  In  from  10  to  18  days  from  the 
time  they  complete  spinning,  according  to  the  warmth 
of  the  climate  and  season,  the  moth  emerges  from  the 
cocoon,  a large  butterfly  of  a grayish  white  color,  with 
four  wings,  two  eyes,  and  two  feathery  plumes  or  horns. 
The  male  usually  appears  first,  and  is  known  by  his 
smaller  size  and  a continual  flutter  of  its  wings.  The 
female  is  of  a larger  size,  of  a whiter  color,  and  seldom 
moves.  These  are  to  be  paired,  and  removed  by  their 
wings  to  sheets  of  paper  spread  on  tables  or  boards, 
where  they  are  to  be  left  shut  up  in  darkness.  The 
plialcena  being  a night  insect.  The  female  usually  com- 
mences laying  in  about  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six 
hours  after  leaving  the  cocoon,  and  lays  from  three  hun- 
dred to  four  hundred  eggs,  disposed  in  a circular  space 
on  the  paper,  to  which  they  adhere.  One  sixteenth  part 
of  the  cocoons  are  sometimes  reserved  for  this  purpose 
as  a great  allowance.  One  hundred  pairs  of  cocoons, 
which  weigh  a pound,  will  produce  an  ounce  of  eggs ; 
and  an  ounce  of  eggs  is  computed  to  produce  forty  thou- 


84 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


sand  silk-worms.  These  papers  are  to  be  carefully 
rolled  up  and  placed  in  close  tin  boxes  lined  with  paper, 
and  preserved  in  a cool  room  or  dry  cellar,  where  they 
will  not  freeze;  but  freezing,  though  it  may  injure  by 
retarding  the  period  of  their  hatching,  yet  it  does  not 
destroy. 


SECTION  XXXII. 

STIFLING  THE  COCOON  OR  CHRYSALIDE.  , 

Were  it  convenient  to  reel  the  silk  from  the  cocoon 
immediately  after  it  is  spun,  it  would  be  the  best  possible 
mode  ; but  where  it  is  not  convenient,  the  insect  con- 
tained in  the  cocoon  must  be  stifled  within  about  ten 
days  after  the  cocoon  is  completed,  otherwise  it  will  per- 
forate the  cocoon,  which  would  thus  be  rendered  of  lit- 
tle value. 

In  many  climates  the  power  of  the  solar  rays  is  found 
to  be  sufficient  to  destroy  the  chrysalide  in  the  co- 
coon. This  is  an  excellent  mode,  and  it  is  found  effect- 
ual in  India,  in  Italy,  and  in  America.  As  far  north  as 
Burlington,  Vt.,  it  has  been  tried  by  Mr.  Stacy  with  the 
most  perfect  success.  The  cocoons  are  exposed  fully  to 
the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun  in  a cloudless  day  from  10 
o’clock  in  the  morning  till  4 in  the  afternoon,  when  they 
are  to  be  closely  wrapped  in  dark  cloths  which  have  un- 
dergone a like  exposure  to  the  sun’s  intense  heat.  Thus 
exposed  during  three  days,  to  a degree  of  heat  equal  in  the 
sun  to  88^,  their  destruction  becomes  effectual,  as  may  be 
ascertained  on  trial.  Cut  open  a cocoon  and  prick  the 
chrysalide  with  a needle;  if  living,  it  will  then  show 
signs  of  life.  There  may  be  no  better  mode,  and  co- 
coons thus  managed,  wjll  appear  remarkably  bright  and 
fine. 

In  more  temperate  climates,  or  in  some  parts  of 


STIFLING  THE  COCOON  OR  CHRYSALIDE.  85 


France,  ovens  are  used  for  destroying  the  insect.  The 
cocoons  are  placed  in  oblong  shallow  baskets  covered 
with  a paper,  and  over  this  a cloth,  and  these  are  placed 
in  an  oven,  the  heat  of  which  should  be  very  nearly  that 
of  the  oven  after  the  bread  is  drawn.  Thus  wrapped 
up  and  exposed  during  half  an  hour  or  an  honr,  the 
chrysalides  taken  from  the  centre  of  the  basket  will  be 
found  dead.  On  removal  from  the  basket,  they  are  cov- 
ered closely  will  blankets  for  a few  hours,  and  then  dried 
in  the  sun.  Steam  of  boiling  water  is  a mode  of  de- 
stroying equally  effectual.  Boiling  water  is  poured  into 
a large  wooden  trough  or  vessel  to  the  depth  of  two  feet. 
Over  this  the  cocoons  are  placed  in  a basket  of  the  same 
form  and  size  : this  is  covered  close  with  wollen  cloths, 
and  the  basket  is  lowered  to  within  an  inch  of  the  sur- 
face, that  the  steam  may  pervade  the  whole  mass — new 
quantities  of  boiling  water  being  added  to  keep  up  the 
steam,  in  two  hours  the  chrysalides  will  be  found  dead. 
The  cocoons  are  then  removed  and  covered  close  with 
woollen  cloths,  and  afterwards  spread  in  the  sun  to  dry. 
189^  to  200^  is  the  heat  usually  prescribed  for  killing 
the  chrysalides,  either  in  the  oven  or  by  steam. 

Stifling  by  steam,  observes  M.  Amans  Carrier,  injures 
the  lustre,  particularly  of  the  white  silk.  And  Mon- 
sieur Baume,  the  celebrated  chemist,  has  also  remarked, 
that  in  the  modes  usually  adopted  for  the  destruction 
of  the  chrysalides,  the  cocoons  were  rendered  harder, 
and  more  difficult  to  reel  than  where  no  artificial  heat 
had  been  applied  ; and  that  the  lustre  is  also  injured  in 
the  process  of  baking.  His  mode  consisted  in  placing 
the.  cocoons  in  large  boxes,  in  layers  six  inches  deep  : 
on  these  spirits  of  wine  were  sprinkled  from  a watering 
pot,  and  equally  distributed  over  the  whole  cocoons,  in 
the  proportion  of  half  a pint  to  every  superficial  foot  of 
surface.  On  these  another  layer  six  inches  deep  was 
placed,  and  a like  proportion  of  spirits  of  wine  distri- 
buted over  the  whole ; and  so  continuing  till  the  box 
was  filled.  All  being  covered  during  24  hours,  a spon- 


86 


SILK  GROWER'S  GUIDE. 


taneous  heat  ensues,  which  is  sufficient  to  evaporate  the 
spirit,  which  penetrates  the  cocoon  with  power  to  destroy 
the  chrysalides ; the  cocoons  are  afterwards  spread  to  dry, 
and  are  then  ready  for  reeling,  with  no  aid  from  hot 
water.  M.  Beaume  states  that  silk  thus  managed,  not 
only  exhibits  a greater  degree  of  lustre,  but  that  the  pro- 
portion of  the  silk  reeled  will  be  one  ninth  part  greater 
than  when  the  cocoons  have  been  subjected  to  the  heat 
of  an  oven. 

By  enclosing  the  cocoons  in  tin  boxes,  and,  after 
sprinkling  with  spirits  of  wine,  closing  up  the  box  and 
placing  it  in  the  sun,  the  chrysalides  are  in  like  manner 
speedily  destroyed.  Or,  by  enclosing  them  in  a large 
wooden  box,  with  a few  small  perforations  in  the  top, 
and  admitting  at  the  bottom  the  steam  of  boiling  whis- 
key or  New  England  rum,  the  same  effect  is  produced. 
Camphorated  spirits  are  still  more  powerful  and  effec- 
tual. When  these  are  used,  the  boxes  containing  the 
cocoons  should  be  closed  for  a time,  and  placed  near 
the  fire ; such  cocoons  are  ever  after  secure  from  the 
attacks  of  moths. 

The  reeling  should  commence  as  soon  as  the  first 
cocoons  are  completed,  and  should  continue  uninter- 
rupted. Those  cocoons  which  become  spotted  in  de- 
stroying the  chrysalides,  must  be  separated  and  reeled 
immediately. 

By  whatever  process  the  chrysalides  have  been  de- 
stroyed, it  will  be  necessary  to  dry  them  thoroughly, 
either  in  the  sun,  or  in  rooms  expressly  appropriated  to 
this  use,  which  are  called  cocoonieres,  and  may  be  pro- 
vided with  a stove.  These  rooms  are  provided  with 
shelves  placed  in  tiers  two  feet  asunder,  and  formed  of 
laths.  The  legs  of  the  supporters  and  the  whole  being 
insulated  and  secure  from  rats  and  mice,  which  are  im- 
moderately fond  of  the  chrysalides.  Air  is  continually 
admitted,  and  the  cocootis  which  are  spread  to  the  depth 
of  a few  inches,  are  continually  watched  and  turned 
every  day,  till  thoroughly  dry. 


REELING. 


87 


SECTION  XXXIII. 

TRANSPORTING  COCOONS. 

Cocoons  when  sent  to  market,  or  to  the  filatures  at  a 
distance  for  reeling,  must  be  put  up  with  a suitable  de- 
gree of  care.  Particular  attention  is  necessary  in  hand- 
ling and  packing,  that  they  be  not  dented  or  flattened, 
as  this  would  be  highly  injurious.  The  cocoons  when 
perfectly  dry,  are  to  be  packed  in  tight  and  perfectly 
dry  boxes,  or  barrels,  and  sufficiently  pressed  down  to 
prevent  chafing,  but  not  so  hard  as  to  alter  their  form. 
Thus  managed  they  may  be  safely  transported  to  any 
distance  by  water  or  by  land. 


SECTION  XXXIV. 

REELING. 

In  silk  countries,  an  establishment  for  reeling  is  called 
a filature,  and  the  winding  of  the  cocoons  is  generally 
conducted  as  a separate  business,  distinct  from  that  of 
raising  silk-worms,  and  the  silken  balls  become  an 
article  of  traffic,  as  soon  as  the  chrysalide  within  has 
been  destroyed. 

Everything , it  is  admitted,  depends  on  reeling.  So 
important,  indeed,  is  this  branch  considered,  that  an 
essential  portion  of  the  profit  depends  on  its  being  pro- 
perly performed.  If  the  reeling  has  been  but  indiffer- 
ently performed,  the  silk  may  not  sell  for  more  than  four 
dollars  a pound,  but  if  well  reeled  and  skillfully  executed, 
it  may  bring  from  six  to  seven  dollars,  possibly  more. 


88 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


according  to  the  demand  at  the  time ; and  it  is  stated  by 
Count  Dandolo,  as  a well  known  fact,  that  of  tv/o  reel- 
ers,  each  reeling  seven  and  a half  pounds  of  cocoons  of 
the  same  quality,  while  one  will  be  able  to  obtain  but 
six  or  six  and  a half  ounces,  another  will  obtain  eight 
ounces. 

Until  very  lately,  most  of  the  silk  which  was  made 
in  Connecticut  was  converted  into  sewing  silk ; and  I 
have  seen  the  statement  that  in  1831,  more  than  $81,000 
worth  of  sewing  silk  was  made  in  the  town  of  Mansfield 
alone.  Yet  “ the  Connecticut  sewing  silk,’’  says  Mr. 
Cobb,  at  present  does  not  bring  a higher  price  than  the 
reeled  silk  as  it  comes  from  my  reels.  As  it  is  said  there 
is  a loss  of  one  half  of  the  weight  in  the  preparation  of  the 
sewing  silk,  it  is  evident  that  to  reel  it  properly,  and 
sell  it  for  raw  silk,  would  bring  a hundred  per  cent, 
extra  profit. 

The  difficulty  of  reeling  is  only  in  th6  beginning,  and 
is  soon  and  easily  conquered.  Practice,  perseverance, 
with  diligence,  will  soon  enable  any  one  to  attain  the  art 
to  perfection.  Those  there  are,  it  is  well  known,  who  with 
little  or  no  instruction,  soon  became  most  skilful  reelers. 
I will  speak  of  Mrs.  Church,  the  lady  of  Samuel  Church, 
Esq.,  of  Bethlem,  Conn.  ‘‘We  have  seen  several  speci- 
mens of  the  reeling  of  this  lady,  the  present  season,” 
says  Judge  Comstock,  “which  we  do  not  hesitate  to 
pronounce  equal  to  any  foreign  silk  we  have  ever  seen, 
and  what  is  most  surprising,  they  are  the  results  of  some 
of  her  first  attempts  at  reeling! 

For  the  want  of  those  suitably  skilled  in  reeling,  the 
cocoons  are  stated  to  bring  but  from  thirty-seven  cents 
to  fifty  cents  a pound,  while  but  eight  or  nine  pounds 
only  of  the  best  cocoons  are  required  for  a pound  of 
pure  silk. 

Even  the  bounties  now  so  liberally  offered  by  Massa- 
chusetts, Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  some  other 
States,  which  amount  to'two  dollars  for  every  pound  of 
silk  raised  and  reeled  w'ithin  those  States,  will,  in  the 


REELING. 


89 


opinion  of  good  judges,  fully  pay  for  all  the  expense  of 
raising  and  of  reeling  well,  leaving  the  whole  amount  of 
silk  as  clear  profit. 

Mr.  Noiiaille,  according  to  Mr.  Cobb,  has  stated, 
‘‘  that  at  Novi  (Italy)  a woman  experienced  in  the  busi- 
ness, with  the  assistance  of  a girl  to  turn  the  wheel  and 
attend  the  fires  under  the  cauldron,  can  with  ease  reel 
off  one  pound  of  silk,  consisting  of  four  or  five  cocoons, 
of  the  most  perfect  quality,  in  a day.  These  reels  carry 
two  threads  each,  two  skeins  being  reeled  on  the  same 
instrument  at  the  same  time.  But  where  silk  of  ordi- 
nary quality  is  wound,  one  person  may  with  equal  ease 
attend  to  the  reeling  of  five,  or  six,  or  even  more  skeins, 
all  which  are  wound  at  the  same  time  on  a reel  of  more 
extended  dimensions.  Mr.  D’Homergue  says  a woman 
may  now  reel  three  pounds  a day  with  the  aid  of  her 
attendant.  The  Americans  will  be  able  to  dispense 
with  the  labor  of  this  attendant,  and  to  substitute  a 
cheaper  species  of  laborers  than  even  are  those  of  any 
part  of  Europe, — I refer  to  our  abundant  natural  re- 
sources. At  Mansfield,  and  at  various  other  places, 
reels  are  now  moved  by  water  power,  or  by  steam. 

The  filaments  of  the  cocoon  are  cemented  together 
by  a gum  ; to  dissolve  this  gum  requires  the  aid  of  hot 
w^ater.  This  gum  is  very  important,  and  is  not  separa- 
ted till  the  silk  is  twisted  into  tram  or  organzine  ; the 
gum  serves  to  unite  and  combine  the  individual  fibres 
while  winding,  and  as  a cement  uniting  the  ends  of  the 
continuous  thread  which  is  formed  by  the  continual  ad- 
ditions of  new  filaments  to  replace  those  of  the  exhaust- 
ed cocoons.  It  is  important,  also,  that  the  reel  should 
be  moved  with  a suitable  degree  of  speed,  that  the  fila- 
ment may  unite  while  warm  and  adhesive.  Also,  it  is 
an  essential  requisite  to  the  production  of  good  silk, 
that  before  the  silk  touches  the  bars  of  the  reel,  it 
should  have  lost  by  drying  and  by  cooling,  a good  part 
of  this  adhesive  quality.  For  this  reason,  the  reelers  of 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


90 


Piedmont  are  obliged  by  law  to  allow  the  distance  of 
thirty-eight  French  inches  between  the  guides  and  the 
centre  of  the  reel.  This,  and  the  slowly-traversing 
movement  of  the  layer  which  winds  spirally  over  the 
reel,  backwards  and  forwards,  and  the  circulation  of 
the  air,  caused  by  the  motions  of  the  reel,  dries  the  gum 
sufficiently  to  prevent  the  adhesion  of  the  threads. 

Whoever  would  acquire  the  art  of  reeling  silk,  must 
first  of  all  be  provided  with  an  appropriate  and  well 
constructed  silk  reel.  Such  an  one  may  be  either  pur- 
chased or  made  at  a trifling  expense.  The  French  reel 
is  a new  and  highly  improved  instrument  of  very  modern 
date.  Reels  on  the  plans  which  I have  described  may 
be  purchased  at  the  agricultural  ware-houses  in  our  prin- 
cipal cities,  constructed  at  an  expense  which  may  vary 
from  five  to  twenty  dollars  each. 

Mr.  Gideon  Smithes  Silk  Reel  is  an  improvement  on 
the  silk  reel  of  Piedmont  and  more  simple  in  its  opera- 
tions. The  improvement  consists  in  substituting  a 
drum  wheel  and  pulley,  and  band,  or  cord,  for  the  cog 
wheel  of  the  Piedmontese  reel.  The  pulley  is  attached 
to  the  reel  itself,  and  is  ten  inches  diameter  ; the  drum 
wheel  is  connected  with  a spiral  groove  w^hich  gives  a 
vibratory  motion  to  the  traversing  bar  by  means  of  a 
pin.  The  size  of  these  wheels  precludes  the  liability  of 
the  band  slipping;  and  such  are  their  proportions  that 
while  the  reel  performs  nine  revolutions,  the  drum  wheel 
performs  five  revolutions,  causing  the  traversing  bar  to 
move  backwards  five  times,  and  five  tinms  forwards. 
The  spiral  groove,  which  gives  motion  direct  to  the  tra- 
versing bar,  is  formed  precisely  like  that  of  the  French 
reel,  although  it  is  somewhat  different  in  its  operation. 

Mr.  Cobb’s  Reel  combines  great  power  and  efficiency 
with  great  simplicity  of  construction.  The  principal 
difference  between  this  reel  and  that  of  Piedmont  con- 
sists in  this,  that  the  l^orizontal  wheel,  or  drum,  which 
gives  motion  to  the  traversing  bar,  receives  its  motion 
from  a band,  or  cord,  and  a pulley  connected  with  the 


REELING. 


91 


reel,  instead  of  cog  wheels,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Pied- 
mont reel. 

Mr,  Daleys  Red  is  an  improvement  oa  Mr.  Cobb’s 
reel,  from  which  it  only  differs  in  receiving  its  motion  by 
having  the  handle  affixed  to  the  drum  wheel,  which  is 
placed  near  the  basin,  by  which  means  the  same  person 
who  attends  to  the  reeling  may  at  the  same  time  turn 
the  reel.  In  the  other  reels  the  handles  are  usually 
affixed  to  the  reel  itself. 

Gay's  machine  for  reeling  has  much  simplified  the 
process,  winds  at  once  the  silk  from  the  cocoons  upon 
the  spool,  instead  of  a reel,  and  is  stated  to  be  so  simple  in 
its  construction,  and  so  easy  in  its  management,  that  any 
woman  will  acquire  sufficient  knowledge  of  its  use  in 
two  hours’  instruction,  to  become  tolerably  expert  in  the 
art  of  reeling. 

On  the  spools  on  which  it  is  thus  wound,  it  can  never 
get  entangled,  as  in  skeins,  and  it  is  wound  in  one  con- 
tinuous thread,  and  may  be  transported  to  any  distance, 
and  kept  for  any  length  of  time  without  injury,  and  as 
is  the  case  of  the  spools  of  cotton  thread,  it  may  be 
wound  off  entire  and  without  injury. 

The  machine  of  Mr.  Gay  oceppies  but  little  space, 
and  may  be  used  without  inconvenience,  by  the  fireside, 
and  although,  in  nearly  all  cases,  before  the  silk  is  to  be 
manufactured  it  will  still  be  necessary  to  reel  it  from  the 
bobbins  or  spools,  into  hanks  or  skeins,  yet  the  other 
advantages  in  reeling,  and  keeping,  and  presefving  the 
silk  or  spools,  are  stated  to  overbalance  the  trouble  of 
two  windings.  This,  as  well  as  all  other  reels,  and  the 
loom,  may  be  moved  by  water  power. 

In  Piedmont,  silk  of  the  best  quality  has  long  been 
produced  ; to  this  high  character  which  they  have  so  long 
maintained,  they  are  indebted  to  the  Piedmontese  Reel, 
This  reel  has  served  as  the  foundation  of  numerous  im- 
proved reels,  and  is  formed  of  four  bars,  or  arms,  and  is 
usually  a yard  in  circumference.  One  of  these  bars  is 
provided  with  hinges  that  it  may  fold  inwards  towardvS 


92 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


the  centre,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  slacken  the 
silk  that  it  may  be  carefully  removed  from  the  reel. 
The  traversing  bar,  which  carries  two  iron  wire  guides 
through  which  the  threads  pass,  receives  its  lateral 
motion,  by  being  connected  by  a pin  to  the  outer  circum- 
ference of  a horizontal  wheel.  This  wheel  receives 
motion  by  other  cog  wheels  which  are  connected  with 
the  reel. 


PIEDMONTESE  REEL. 


FRENCH  REEL. 

The  following  Description  of  the  French  Reel,  is  taken 
from  the  work  of  Dr.  Ure,  page  265. 

Fig.  1 and  2 represent,  in  plan  and  longitudinal  view, 
the  reeling  apparatus  used  in  France. 

a.  The  oblong  water  basin,  heated  by  steam  or  a 
stove,  commonly  divided  by  transverse  partitions,  con- 
taining sometimes  twenty  cocoons,  five  in  a group. 

h.  Hooked  wires,  or\  eyelets,  to  guide  several  fila- 
ments and  keep  them  asunder. 


REELING. 


93 


FIG.  2.— SECTION  OP  REEL. 


c.  Points  where  the  threads  run  across  each  other  to 
clean  their  surfaces. 

d.  Spiral  groove,  with  a pin  to  give  the  traverse 
motion  to  the  thread,  in  order  to  spread  it  over  the 
reel  e;  the  traversing  bar  moving  horizontally  to  and 
fro,  in  the  arc  of  a circle. 

f.  Pulleys,  which  transmit  by  cords  the  rotary  move- 
ment of  the  cylinder  d,  to  the  reel  e ; the  pulley  con- 
nected with  the  reel  being  the  smallest  of  the  two. 

g.  Friction  lever,  for  tightening  or  slackening  the 
endless  cord,  in  setting  or  stopping  the  winding  opera- 
tion. There  is  usually  a series  of  such  reels  in  one 
apartment,  driven  by  one  moving  power  ; but  each  of 
them,  as  shewn,  can  be  stopped  at  pleasure. 


94 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


The  use  of  the  reel  requires  a dexterit}^  which  is  easi- 
ly acquired  by  practice.  The  cocoons  being  cleared 
of  floss,  are  thrown  by  handfulls  into  basins  of  pure  soft 
water,  placed  over  small  furnaces  of  charcoal  fires. 
When  the  water  is  almost  at  boiling  point,  sink  the 
cocoons,  with  a whisk  of  broom  corn,  under  water  for 
two  or  three  minutes,  to  soften  the  gum  and  loosen  the 
fibre.  Then  moving  the  whisk  very  lightly  and  softly, 
the  filaments  will  adhere  to  it,  and  may  be  drawn  up 
till  the  flossy  silk  is  unwound,  and  the  fine  silk  comes 
off.  When  a sufficient  number  of  the  filaments  are 
collected  to  form  the  thread,  it  is  passed  through  one  of 
the  holes  of  the  iron  or  glass  plate  connected  with  the 
guide  and  traversing  bar,  and  tied  to  one  of  the  bars  of 
the  reel,  and  the  reeling  begins. 

If  the  cocoons  bound  upwards,  it  shews  that  the  gum 
is  not  sufficiently  softened  ; the  reel  must  be  slacked, 
and  hot  w^ater  added,  or  its  temperature  increased : 
but  if  the  silk  comes  off  in  lumps  or  burs,  this  shews 
that  the  silk  is  yielded  from  the  cocoon  faster  than  it 
can  be  received  on  the  reel,  and  that  the  water  is  there- 
fore too  hot ; cold  water  is  added,  and  the  motions  of  the 
reel  are  quickened. 

Each  reel  carries  two  compound  threads,  and  it  has 
been  recommended  that  the  second  thread  be  wound 
two  or  three  times  round  the  other  thread,  previous  to 
being  passed  through  its  guide,  and  secured  to  the  reel ; 
this  crossing  and  friction  makes  a rounder  and  smoother 
thread. 

Stir  the  cocoons  very  lightly;  if  struck  roughly,  the 
silk  comes  off  in  burs,  wdfich  will  rise  up  to  the  guides, 
and  obstruct  the  reel,  instead  of  coming  off  singly. 
When  a greater  number  of  filaments  are  taken  up  by 
the  whisk  than  are  required,  they  are  suffered  to  remain 
on  it  till  wanted,  a hook  being  provided  on  the  reel  to 
which  it  may  be  hung  when  not  in  use. 

The  cocoons  are  put  \in  as  fast  as  wanted,  but  no 
faster ; for  if  they  remain  too  long  in  hot  w^ater,  the  gum, 


KEELING. 


95 


by  being  too  far  dissolved,  causes  the  silk  to  come  off 
unequally. 

The  filaments  as  they  are  wanted,  are  lightly  thrown 
upon  the  thread  that  is  winding,  and  being  gently  rolled 
with  the  thumb  and  finger,  a union  is  effected.  The 
skin  of  the  fingers  should  be  smooth,  or  made  so  by 
rubbing  with  sand  paper. 

It  is  of  some  importance  that  the  water  employed  for 
reeling,  should  be  what  is  usually  called  soft  water,  as 
this  more  readily  dissolves  the  gum,  and  prevents  the 
breaking  of  the  filaments.  It  should  be  either  rain 
water,  water  from  slow  streams,  or  from  ponds. 

If  the  water  be  too  hot,  the  lustre  of  the  silk  will  be 
injured,  particularly  of  the  w^hite  silk  ; so  says  M.  Bene- 
zech  in  his  instructions  to  M.  Amans  Carrier.  Nay 
more  ; if  the  the  water  be  too  hot,  the  thread  will  prove 
dead,  as  it  is  technically  termed,  and  without  firmness. 
Therefore  the  proper  temperature  of  the  water  is  not  of 
more  consequence  to  the  facility  of  the  reeling,  than  to 
the  good  quality  of  the  silk.  But  should  the  heat  of  the 
water  be  deficient,  the  ends  of  the  filaments  will  not  be 
well  joined,  and  the  silk  will  be  harsh. 

Sometimes  the  whole  thread  is  broken  by  knobs  ob- 
structing its  passage  through  the  guides,  or  by  an  irreg- 
ular and  jerking  movement  of  the  reel.  But  in  this 
case  the  silk  must  never  be  joined  by  a knot,  it  is  suffi- 
cient that  the  parts  be  brought  together,  and  united  by 
slightly  twisting. 

Silk  may  be  wound  of  any  size,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
unite  more  than  thirty  filaments  in  one  thread.  The 
art  consists  in  preserving  an  even  thread  ; a thing  only 
to  be  attained  by  practice,  since  in  the  same  cocoon  the 
fibres  diminish,  growing  continually  finer  to  the  end; 
and  the  united  thread  which  is  formed  of  three  new  and 
two  half-wound  cocoons,  is  considered  equal  to  the  silk 
of  four  cocoons.  With  the  exception  of  the  silk  formed 
of  two  cocoons,  other  silks  are  not  distinguished,  other 
than  as  silk  of  three  to  four,  or  four  to  five,  or  five  to 


96 


SILK  GROWER^S  GUIDE. 


six  cocoons.  Those  of  larger  size  are  not  so  nicely 
defined,  and  are  called  from  twelve  to  fifteen,  or  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  cocoons. 

Whether  twenty  cocoons  are  united  to  form  one  sin- 
gle thread,  or  whether  the  same  number  of  filaments  are 
employed  in  the  production  of  four  skeins,  provided 
both  are  wound  with  an  equally  even  thread,  the  amount 
of  labor  is  about  the  same  in  both  cases. 

The  weight  of  silk  which  can  be  reeled  in  any  stated 
time,  depends  on  the  activity  of  the  reeler : there  is  a 
degree  of  dexterity  required  in  adding  fresh  ends,  for 
broken  or  expended  cocoons,  which  can  only  be  acquir- 
ed hy  practice.  Yet  there  are  very  few  reelers  who  are 
capable  of  giving  the  requisite  attention  to  three  skeins 
at  the  same  moment  of  time. 

In  the  first  establishments  of  Europe,  as  well  as  of 
some  of  the  new  ones  in  America,  a steam  pipe  passes 
through  the  vessels  containing  the  water  in  which  the 
cocoons  are  immersed,  preserving  it  at  an  equal  warmth. 
These  vessels  are  emptied  at  once  by  a cock  at  the  bot- 
tom ; and  when  the  water  becomes  discolored,  it  is 
drawn  off.  Other  cocks  placed  above  furnish  the  sup- 
plies of  either  hot  or  cold  water  when  needed.  This 
water  is  heated  by  the  boiler  of  the  engine  which  turns 
the  reels.  It  requires  but  little  power  to  put  in  motion 
the  reels  of  a vast  filature. 


DIFFERENT  Q,UALITIES  OF  COCOONS. 


97 


SECTION  XXXV. 

DIFFERENT  QUALITIES  OF  COCOONS. 

The  cocoons  designed  for  producing  silk  are  divid- 
ed by  culturists  into  different  qualities.  Much  more 
silk  may  thus  be  reeled  in  a day,  if  the  cocoons  are 
properly  classed.  The  breaking  of  the  single  filaments 
arises  from  the  use  of  ill  formed  or  ill  assorted  cocoons, 
which  require  different  degrees  of  temperature  in  the 
water  into  which  they  are  immersed  to  dissolve  the  gum 
with  which  they  are  cemented  in  the  ball. 

Previous  to  reeling,  the  outer  floss  is  separated.  This 
is  expeditiously  performed  by  opening  the  floss  at  one 
end,  when  the  hard,  compact  cocoon  is  readily  pro- 
truded. 

Cocoons  are  classed  as  follows  : 

1.  Good  Cocoons.  These  are  firm,  free  from  spots, 
both  ends  round,  and  capable  of  resisting  the  pressure 
of  the  thumb  and  finger.  These  are  again  subdivided, 
and  the  pure  white  are  separated  from  the  yellow  of  every 
shade.  These  last  are  indebted  for  their  greater  weight 
and  yellow  color  wholly  to  the  excess  of  gum  which  they 
contain.  Pale  cocoons  preserve  a better  and  purer 
white,  and  take  a better  pale  blue  dye. 

2.  Pointed  Cocoons.  These  approach  to  a point  at 
one  extremity  : they  afford  but  little  silk,  and,  after 
being  partly  wound,  the  filament  breaks  continually  at 
the  point,  where  the  thread  is  always  weak,  and  Hhey 
can  be  reeled  no  further. 

3.  Cocalons.  These  are  larger  in  size  than  cocoons 
of  the  first  quality,  but  contain  no  more  silk,  being  less 
compact  in  their  texture.  These  are  separated  in  reel- 
ing from  other  good  qualities,  because  they  require  im- 
mersion in  colder  water ; the  fibres  being  more  easily 


98 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


disengaged  from  the  gummy  cement.  By  expert  reeling, 
tl^y  produce  silk  of  the  first  quality. 

4.  Dupioks,  or  Double  Cocoons.  These  usually 
amount  to  not  more  than  a hundredth  part  of  the  whole. 
These  are  reeled  by  skilful  reelers,  in  water  boiling 
hot,  and  usually  without  difficulty.  These  being  form- 
ed by  the  united  labors  of  two  silk-worms,  many  of  them 
are  so  intertwined  that  they  break  frequently  in  reeling, 
and  sometimes  they  cannot  be  wound  at  all.  The  floss 
must  be  carefully  separated,  also  any  loose  silk  which 
may  accumulate  on  the  reel.  The  silk  which  these 
afford  is  not  so  fine  as  that  of  the  perfect  cocoon,  but  it 
serves  to  form  sewing  silk  of  the  second  quality. 

5.  Soufflons.  These  are  very  imperfect  cocoons,  the 
texture  loose,  even  to  a degree  so  great  as  to  be  trans- 
parent. These  can  never  be  wound,  but  by  a particu- 
lar process  they  are  converted  into  fleuret. 

6.  Perforated  Cocoons.  These  are  the  cocoons  from 
whence  the  miller  has  escaped  and  are  never  reeled. 
Rev.  Mr.  Swayne  was  the  first  to  discover  that  not  a 
filament  is  broken  but  rather  entangled.  He  has  prov- 
ed that  half  of  them  may  be  reeled.  Yet  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  will  ever  be  done  to  profit. 

7.  Good  Choquettes.  These  are  unfinished  cocoons, 
or  those  in  which  the  insect  dies  before  the  completion 
of  their  labor.  On  being  shaken,  the  chrysalide  is  not 
heard  to  rattle,  as  it  adheres  to  the  side.  The  silk  is  as 
fine  as  that  of  the  first  quality,  but  it  is  not  so  strong 
nor  so  brilliant.  They  are  liable  to  furze  in  winding, 
and  must  therefore  be  wound  separately. 

8.  Bad  Choquettes.  These  cocoons  are  defective  or 
spotted  ; the  silk  which  they  afford  is  foul  or  bad,  of  a 
blackish  color. 

9.  Calcined  Cocoons.  These  cocoons  are  so  highly 
esteemed,  that  in  Piedmont  they  sell  for  half  as  much 
again  as  other  good  cocoons  ; but  large  parcels  are  rarely 
to  be  obtained.  In  the$e,  the  silk-worm,  after  having 
completed  its  labor,  is  seized  with  a peculiar  disease, 
and  becomes  either  petrified  or  reduced  to  a white  pow- 


DIFFERENT  (QUALITIES  OF  COCOONS. 


99 


der.  They  are  known  by  a peculiar  rattling  noise  when 
shaken.  The  quality  of  the  silk  is  equally  excellent, 
and  the  quantity  even  greater  than  that  produced  by  the 
healthy  silk-worms. 

In  reeling  good  cocoons,  a thread  composed  of  but  five 
or  six  fibres,  is  said  by  M.  Benezech  to  be  preferred  to 
one  composed  of  eight.  Good  choquettes  are  seldom 
wound  finer  than  from  seven  to  eight  cocoons  at  a time. 
Dupions,  for  ordinary  sewing  silk,  are  wound  fifteen  to 
twenty  filaments  to  a single  thread.  JBad  cliocquettes 
are  usually  wound  from  fifteen  to  twenty  filaments  to 
the  thread.  These,  and  other  inferior  cocoons,  which 
are  wound  forty  or  fifty  fibres  at  once,  form  a thread  for 
the  filling  of  coarse  fabrics,  or  for  sewing  silk  of  coarser 
quality. 

The  water  in  which  dupions  and  choquettes  are 
wound,  must  be  changed  four  times  a day.  But  it  is 
deemed  sufficient  that  the  water  be  renewed  but  twice 
a day,  when  good  cocoons  are  reeled.  Yet  if  the  water 
is  suffered  to  become  foul,  it  injures  the  lustre  and  fine 
gloss  of  the  silk. 

In  Cevennes,  a district  of  France,  famous  for  the  ex- 
cellence of  its  silk,  the  cocoons  are  not  entirely  wound 
off ; as  the  latter  part  of  the  cocoon  being  exceeding  fine, 
and  abounding  with  knots,  is  liable  to  break.  Therefore, 
in  reeling  fine  silk,  when  seven-eighths  of  the  silk  is  wound 
off,  the  cocoon  is  thrown  aside  and  replaced  by  another. 

These  pellicles  are  occasionally  taken  out  with  a la- 
dle and  opened,  and  the  chrysalide  separated  and  thrown 
aside  with  that  which  was  separated  in  the  beginning, 
as  of  inferior  quality ; for  these  partly  fmished  cocoons 
must  on  no  account  be  permitted  to  remain  in  the  ba- 
sins, as  they  would  thicken  the  water,  and  injure  the 
color  and  the  lustre  of  the  silk,  rendering  it  fit  only  for 
receiving  the  dark  colors. 

The  high  reputation  of  the  silk  of  Piedmont  is  owing 
to  regulations  long  established  by  law.  Commissioners 
of  the  government  who  visit  these  establishments,  impose 
fines  on  those  who  infringe  these  regulations.  These 


100 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


laws  prescribe  the  size  of  the  boilers,  and  the  form  and 
proportions  of  the  reel,  &/C.  &c, ; and  a quantity  of  silk 
less  than  five  hundred  pounds  is  not  allowed  to  be 
reeled  in  a single  filature.  Hence  the  celebrity  of 
Piedmontese  silk. 

However  seemingly  beneficial  these  restrictions  and 
usurpations  of  the  government  of  Italy  may  at  first  sight 
appear,  yet  their  direct  tendency  is  to  create  odious  mo- 
nopolies. The  large  and  wealthy  proprietors  are  bene- 
fitted  at  the  expense  of  the  cultivators,  who  being  thus 
unjustly  prohibited  from  the  conversion  of  their  own 
produce  into  the  most  profitable  form  for  sale,  have  be- 
come paralyzed  by  oppression,  and  their  industry  lan- 
guishes. 

In  France,  where  no  such  arbitrary  restrictions  exist, 
much  less  regularity  indeed  prevails  ; and  silk  is  reeled 
by  a variety  of  modes,  some  more  or  less  defective,  and 
of  every  quality.  Here  are  innumerable  domestic  fila- 
tures ; yet  in  some  parts  of  France,  particularly  in  the 
department  of  Gard,  the  produce  of  some  of  the  filatures 
is  considered  nearly  equal  to  the  very  best  of  Italy.  Also 
in  the  upper  department  of  Ardeche,  there  is  produced 
a description  of  white  silk  of  a quality  so  superior,  that 
it  is  purchased  for  the  lace  manufacturers  of  Normandy, 
for  more  than  50  francs,  or  $9  20  a pound ; but  a few 
years  since  it  commanded  a price  as  high  as  150  francs, 
or  $27  60  a pound.  Yet  it  is  stated  that  with  the  ex- 
ception of  these  filatures,  and  of  one  or  two  others  which 
are  destined  to  produce  organzine  by  the  proprietors 
themselves,  there  is  little  or  none  of  the  silk  of  France 
which  possesses  the  desirable  regularity  of  fibre  which 
serves  to  distinguish  the  silk  of  Briance. 

As  to  the  cocoons  which  can  never  be  reeled,  the 
soufflons  are  boiled  half  an  hour ; the  pierced  cocoons 
which  produce  the  best  silk,  are  boiled  longer.  These 
are  first  dried,  and  then  pounded  to  separate  them  from 
their  chrysalides,  which  ai^e  reduced  to  powder.  They 
are  then  opened  by  drawing  them  out  at  arm’s  length, 


DIFFERENT  QUALITIES  OF  COCOONS.  101 

and  placed  on  the  distaff  and  spun.  The  silk  thus  pro- 
duced is  called  fieuret.  But  if  after  boiling  and  drying, 
and  beating,  the  cocoons  are  carded,  the  fleuret  will  be 
more  bright  and  beautiful,  and  command  a higher  price, 
owing  to  the  greater  waste  of  materials,  and  the  far 
greater  amount  of  labor. 

In  every  large  establishment  there  should  be  super- 
numerary reels,  to  be  detached  from  the  reeling  appa- 
ratus. When  the  suitable  quantity  has  been  wound  on 
the  reel,  it  is  to  be  rubbed  gently  with  a handful  of 
clean  coarse  silk  which  has  been  dipped  first  in  cold 
water  and  gently  squeezed ; it  is  afterwards  rubbed 
gently  and  smooth  with  the  palm  of  the  hand.  Then 
opening  the  windows,  turn  the  reel  with  the  greatest 
possible  velocity  for  about  ten  minutes,  which  will 
effectually  dry  the  silk., 

DISBANDING  THE  REEL. 

The  individual  fibres  of  which  the  silken  thread  is 
composed,  will  unavoidably  suffer  different  degrees  of 
tension  during  the  process  of  reeling.  This  may  arise 
from  the  inequality  of  the  size  of  the  filaments,  or  from 
their  being  unequally  steeped  in  the  water  or  from 
other  causes.  The  fibres  thus  unequally  stretched  while 
wet,  would  be  liable  to  contract,  unequally,  thus  des- 
troying the  union  and  diminishing  the  strength  of  the 
compound  thread. 

To  prevent  such  an  occurrence,  the  skein  must  re- 
main on  the  reel  for  six  or  eight  hours,  until  the  fibres 
are  all  firmly  united  in  one  compact  thread.  Those 
fibres  which  have  suffered  less  strain  in  reeling,  and 
those  which  have  suffered  a greater  strain,  will  be 
brought  to  an  equal  length  by  the  prolonged  and  forci- 
ble state  of  union  which  they  undergo  in  the  process  of 
drying  and  shrinking  on  the  reel.  This  drying  must 
be  effected  in  an  airy  place,  but  not  in  the  sun. 

When  the  skein  is  dry,  tie  a mark  to  the  end  of  the 


102 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


thread  which  might  otherwise  be  lost  in  the  skein,  and 
become  extremely  difficult  to  find.  First  squeeze  it 
together  gently  on  the  bars  all  around  which  will  loosen 
it ; then  with  a string  of  refuse  silk,  tie  it  on  the  place 
which  bore  on  the  bars  of  the  reel ; then  carefully  slide 
it  from  the  reel  and  make  another  tie  on  the  opposite 
end  of  the  skein.  After  this  it  is  doubled,  and  tied  near 
each  extremity,  and  laid  by  for  sale  or  for  use,  in  a dry 
place. 

The  value  of  silk  when  ready  for  sale  depends  on  the 
absence  of  knobs  and  of  knots  which  occasion  it  to  be 
called ybwZ.  To  judge  if  silk  be  clean,  or  free  from  im- 
perfections, is  an  art  very  easily  attained.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  stand  with  your  back  to  the  window,  and  to 
open  the  skein,  and  looking  down  in  the  direction  o 
the  light,  any  foulness  which  may  exist,  is  readily  per- 
ceived by  the  practised  eye.  But  the  fineness  of  the 
thread  is  determined  by  a certain  known  admeasurement 
of  the  circumference  of  the  reel  and  skein,  the  number 
of  threads,  and  the  weight.  A given  number,  usually 
a skein  of  400  revolutions,  is  removed  from  the  reel 
and  accurately  weighed. 


SECTION  XXXVI. 

FORMATION  OF  ORGANZINE,  SEWING  SILK,  &c. 

The  outside  of  the  cocoon,  which  is  formed  of  a 
loose  furzy  substance,  constitutes  one-tenth  of  the  weight 
of  the  whole  silk  ; this  is  called  by  the  YxenoAx,  jleuret ; 
to  this  is  added  all  those  threads  called  joaste  silk,  which 
from  want  of  skill,  or  defect  in  the  cocoons,  become 
broken  in  reeling,  or  doubling,  or  twisting.  After  be- 
ing boiled  in  soap  sudsv^and  combed,  and  spun  on  the 
spinning  wheel,  it  is  called  bourre  de  ^oie,  ox  JiloscUe,  or 


FORMATION  OF  ORGANZINE. 


103 


by  the  English,  This  floss  is  employed  in  the  inaii- 

nfacture  of  gloves,  mittens,  and  all  kinds  of  silk  hosiery. 

The  silk  furnished  by  the  cocoons  is  usually  divided 
into  six  qualities.  The  1st  quality  is  called  Smgles — 
*2d,  Orgcmzine  or  warp — 3d,  IVarn  or  icoof — 4th,  sew- 
ing silk  of  the  first  and  second  quality — 5th,  Cordonet 
or  twist,  and  6th  Filoselle  ox  Jloss. 

Throwing  or  making  Organzine. 

Raw  Silk,  previous  to  weaving,  must  first  be  made  to 
assume  one  of  three  forms,  either  singles,  tram  or  or- 
ganzine. 

Singles  are  formed  by  the  very  simple  process  of 
twisting  the  raw  silk,  in  order  to  communicate  a greater 
degree  of  firmness  to  its  texture. 

Tram,  or  woof  is  formed  by  the  twisting  together, 
though  not  very  closely,  of  two  or  more  threads  of  raw 
silk,  without  first  twisting  them  separately. 

Organzine  is  used  principally  for  the  warp.  It  is 
formed  by  mills  or  machines  constructed  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

In  the  formation  of  organzine,  the  silk  is  first  wound 
from  the  skein  on  to  bobbins  or  spools.  These  thus 
wound,  are  next  sorted  into  different  qualities.  The 
thread  is  next  twisted  by  the  spindle  after  passing  twice 
around  an  iron  pulley,  which  is  grooved  in  its  outer  cir- 
cumference and  two  inches  in  diameter.  This  serves 
to  regulate  and  compress  the  threads,  and  to  give  them  a 
round  form.  Two  or  more  of  these  threads  are  next 
united  and  twisted  together  in  an  opposite  direction. 
Lastly,  the  different  qualities  of  organzine  thus  prepared, 
are  sorted  according  to  their  different  degrees  of  fine- 
ness. 

The  gum  serves  the  very  important  purpose  of  pre- 
serving the  adhesion  of  the  fibres  of  the  silk  until  the 
whole  is  formed  into  organzine,  or  ready  to  be  woven. 
After  the  organzining  is  completely  formed  on  the  bob- 


i04 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


bin,  it  is  transferred  into  skeins  of  a prescribed  length 
upon  the  reels.  It  is  now  called  hard  silk,  and  this  name 
it  retains  until  the  gum  is  extracted.  But  were  the  gum 
extracted  from  the  silk  by  boiling,  before  being  twisted, 
it  would  become  at  best  a downy  or  woolly  substance, 
unfit  for  the  purpose  of  manufacture.  These  observa- 
tions have  led  us  to  doubt  the  utility  of  employing  spir- 
its of  wine  in  destroying  the  chrysalides,  inasmuch  as 
pure  alcohol  may  have  a tendency  not  only  to  dissolve, 
but  also  utterly  to  destroy  the  tenacity  of  the  gum ; 
while  pure  water,  in  which  the  cocoons  are  immersed 
when  reeled,  can  do  no  more  than  simply  to  dissolve  the 
gum,  without  destroying  its  adhesive  quality,  which  it 
recovers  again  when  dry. 

Previous  to  taking  the  silk  from  the  reel,  and  to  pre- 
vent it  from  crinkling  in  consequence  of  the  twisting  it 
has  received,  the  reels  are  subjected  to  the  action  of 
steam  for  two  or  three  minutes.  This  is  a modern  dis- 
covery which  has  been  found  effectually  and  permanently 
to  set  the  twist.  Formerly,  the  reels  were  steeped  in 
boiling  water,  a troublesome  and  much  less  effectual 
mode. 

The  silk  is  now  boiled  for  about  two  hours  in  a good 
proportion  of  water,  in  which  soap  has  been  dissolved 
in  the  proportion  of  one-third  of  the  weight  of  silk  to 
be  prepared.  This  aids  in  dissolving  the  gum,  and  in 
rendering  the  silk  soft  and  glossy.  Particular  care  is 
necessary  to  prevent  the  silk  from  adhering  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  copper  kettle,  a circumstance  to  which  it 
will  be  liable  by  reason  of  the  viscid  gum  which  is  con- 
tained in  the  silk,  which  in  this  case  will  become  car- 
bonized and  spoiled  in  that  part.  This  though  not  al- 
ways so  perceptible  at  first,  will  infallibly  be  discovered 
when  put  into  the  loom,  and  will  then  cause  infinite 
trouble. 

After  thus  boiling,  the  silk  is  well  washed  in  a cur- 
rent of  pure  water  to  puri^  and  to  free  it  from  the  soap  ; 
it  is  afterwards  dried.  It  has  now  assumed  that  pecu- 


FORMATION  OF  ORGANZINE. 


105 


liar  softness  of  texture  and  brilliant  gloss  which  consti- 
tute its  principal  excellence  and  beauty. 

Raw  silk  usually  loses  from  2 to  7^  per  cent,  in  weight, 
in  the  process  of  organzining;  but  after  the  gum  is  ex- 
tracted by  boiling,  and  after  drying,  the  total  loss  usu- 
ally amounts  to  25  pounds  in  every  hundred.  But  th« 
waste  varies  materially  in  different  filatures,  and  is 
greater  in  those  of  Italy  than  in  those  from  Bengal. 
From  the  perfect  system  of  reeling  which  now  exists  in 
the  establishments  of  the  East  India  Company  at  this 
place,  the  loss  by  organzining,  sometimes  does  not  ex- 
ceed two  per  cent,  on  the  weight  of  the  raw  material. 

Sewing  Silk. 

Setmng  silk  is  formed  of  two  kinds,  and  four  quali- 
ties; that  only  being  formed  of  the  best  silk  which  is 
designed  for  sewing  silk  stutfs.  The  other,  or  second 
quality,  is  for  sewing  woollens,  and  for  cordonett  or 
twist.  This  second  quality  is  formed  of  the  dupionsand 
of  the  ordinary  sort  of  cocalons. 

Mode  of  making  Sewing  Silk  and  Twist  in  Con- 

NECTICLT. 

The  follow  ing  is  the  method  followed  in  Connecticut, 
as  recommended  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  by 
Daniel  Bulkley,  Esq. 

“ The  raw"  silk  is  first  spooled  on  bobbins,  the  num- 
ber of  which  is  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  intended 
thread  from  the  first  spinning;  and  to  facilitate  the  op- 
eration, they  are  put  into  warm  water.  The  silk  is 
again  spooled,  taking  two  or  three  bobbins  according  to 
the  size  of  the  intended  thread.  After  being  spun,  it  is 
reeled  into  skeins,  each  of  forty  yards  in  length,  or  half 
a knot  of  the  country  reel,  as  required  by  a law"  of  the 
State.  About  twenty-five  of  these  skeins  are  put  to- 
gether, like  a skein  of  cotton  or  woollen  yarn  They 
8 


106 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


are  then  boiled,  adding  a small  quantity  of  soft  soap,  or 
ley  of  wood  ashes,  to  cleanse  them  from  the  gum;  they 
are  then  ready  for  dyeing. 

‘‘  Silk  twist  is  spun  in  the  same  manner,  except  that  it 
is  always  of  three  cords.  The  winding  of  the  twist  , is 
done  on  a machine  imported  from  England. 

‘‘  We  have  a small  establishment  for  spinning  by  wa- 
ter, with  a machine  similar  to  a throstle  frame  of  a cot- 
ton mill.  The  silk  is  first  spooled  by  hand  on  bobbins, 
which  are  placed  on  the  top  of  the  frame,  the  thread  of 
raw  silk  passing  from  it  under  a wire  through  a trough 
of  water,  then  through  rollers  to  the  spindle.  A single 
frame  may  contain  from  thirty  to  fifty  spindles,  and  can 
be  attended  to  by  one  person.  The  doubling  and  twist- 
ing may  be  done  by  the  same  frame  at  the  same  time,  by 
giving  the  bands  to  a part  of  the  spindles  a contrary  di- 
rection. As  many  threads  are  put  to  a spindle  as  are 
required  to  make  a thread  of  two  or  three  cords.  Silk 
spun  in  this  way  is  far  superior  to  that  done  by  hand. 
The  machine  will  spin  from  two  three  pounds  in  a day. 
A pound  of  silk  after  being  spun  and  cleansed,  will 
weigh  about  ten  ounces,  and  form  one  hundred  and 
seventy  skeins — the  threads  of  sufficient  size  to  sew 
woollens.  If  spun  finer,  it  would  make  more.  It  in- 
creases little  or  nothing  in  weight  when  dyed. 

“ Silk  is  sold  by  the  skein,  one  hundred  of  which 
will  measure  one-third  more  than  half  a pound  of  Italian 
or  English  silk,  of  the  same  sized  threads.  One  woman 
can  make  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  of  raw  silk  in  a 
season  of  six  weeks.’’ 

Brooks’  spinning  and  reeling  machine  is  highly 
spoken  of.  It  was  invented  by  Amos  Brooks  of  Scitu- 
ate.  Mass.,  w’ho  has  obtained  a patent  for  the  invention. 
They  can  be  made  with  any  number  of  spindles  which 
may  be  desired,  and  may  be  purchased  at  the  agricultu- 
ral warehouses  in  our  chief  cities,  at  a price  varying 
from  $20  to  $30. 

The  following  description  of  Brooks’  spinning  ma- 


FORMATION  OF  ORGAN ZINE. 


107 


chine,  we  copy  from  the  Complete  Farmer,  a valuable 
agricultural  work  published  at  Boston. 

Brooks’  silk  spinning  and  reeling  machine,  which 
was  invented  by  himself,  is  found  to  be  a very  simple 
and  easy  operating  machine,  and  yet  one  of  the  most 
perfect  that  has  been  invented  for  the  purpose  of  reeling 
and  twisting  silk  from  the  cocoons,  and  manufacturing 
it  into  sewing  silk.  By  the  different  arrangements  of 
this  machine,  it  will  operate  upon  a single  or  double 
thread,  as  may  be  required,  and  prepare  it  for  twisting 
or  weaving.  Experience  has  fully  proved,  that  by 
uniting  the  filaments  of  silk  as  they  are  drawn  from  the 
cocoons,  wet  in  their  natural  glutinous  substance,  be- 
fore they  dry,  the  thread  is  more  firm,  smooth  and  strong. 

“The  simplicity  of  the  machine,  and  the  very  easy 
way  in  which  it  is  used,  brings  it  within  the  comprehen- 
sion and  capacity  of  any  person  to  use  it.  Mr.  Brooks 
has  received  a premium  for  his  invention  from  several 
societies,  and  of  late  a premium  and  medal  from  Scott’s 
legacy  in  Philadelphia.” 

Mr.  Cobb  has  tried  the  invention  of  Mr.  Brooks  in 
his  extensive  manufactory  for  sewing  silk ; and  although 
he  highly  approves  of  it  as  an  invention  eminently 
adapted  for  making  sewing  silk  in  families,  yet  for  large 
manufacturing  establishments,  like  his  own,  he  gives  a 
decided  preference  to  the  new  and  highly  improved 
English  machinery,  for  making  sewing  silk.  We  confi- 
dently hope  that  Mr.  Brooks  will  add  those  improve- 
ments to  his  machine,  which  will  render  it  as  well 
adapted  to  extensive  factories  as  it  already  is  for  the  use 
of  families. 

Dennis’  Reeling  and  Spinning  Machine. 

Jonathan  Dennis  of  Portsmouth,  R.  I.,  has  very  lately 
invented  and  taken  out  a patent  for  a machine  for  making 
sewing  silk,  direct  from  the  cocoon,  at  a single  opera- 
tion, which  is  stated  by  him  to  be  far  more  perfect  and 
expeditious  in  its  evolutions  than  any  other  machine  yet 


108 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


known.  Mr.  Dennis  ascribes  the  superiority  of  his  ma- 
chine over  all  others  of  American  invention,  to  the  supe- 
rior speed  and  perfection  of  its  movements  ; sewing  silk 
of  the  most  perfect  quality  being  formed  suddenly,  and 
immediately  from  the  cocoons,  while  the  silk  yet  re- 
mains perfectly  moist  and  flexible,  and  before  the  fila- 
ments become  rigid  and  inflexible  by  dyeing,  and  there- 
fore incapable  from  this  cause  of  uniting  so  firmly  and 
compactly  by  reason  of  the  hardening  of  the  cement  or 
gum  which  they  contain.  Such  are  the  statements  of 
Mr.  Dennis. 


SECTION  XXXVII. 

RRODUCE  AND  PROFITS  OF  THE  SILK-WORM  AND 
OF  SILK. 

The  profits  of  a crop  of  silk  may  generally  be  indi- 
cated by  the  size  and  quality  of  the  cocoons.  If  the 
cocoons  are  very  large,  like  the  products  of  the  well 
cultivated  and  fertilized  fields,  it  portends  a profitable 
and  abundant  harvest.  In  regard  to  the  produce,  I 
would  be  always  understood  to  speak  only  of  good  and 
profitable  crops.  Cocoons  raised  by  Mr.  Benjamin,  in 
Bristol,  Mass.,  in  1835,  were  so  large  that  160  weighed 
a pound.  Those  raised  in  the  early  settlements  of  Geor- 
gia, required  but  200  to  the  pound  avoirdupois;  and  of 
those  raised  by  Mrs.  Davenport,  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  Cobb,  206  weighed  a pound.  Cocoons  raised  by 
Mr.  Stacy,  in  Burlington,  Vt.,  1835,  required  214  to  a 
pound.  The  weight  of  all  these  is  very  large.  Count 
Dandolo  found  that  240  cocoons  of  his  own  raising, 
weighed  a pound  ; but  M.  Bonafoux  has  averaged  the 
weight  at  256  to  the  pound.  I have  put  down  the  av- 
erage of  a good  crop  at^50  to  a pound,  and  Mayet  has 
allowed  the  same  number. 

Cocoons  are  found  to  lose  per  cent,  in  weight  in 


PRODUCE  AND  PROFITS  OF  THE  SILK-WORM.  109 

the  first  ten  days,  by  the  perspiration  of  the  chrysalides. 
The  proportion  between  the  weight  of  silk  which  can 
be  reeled,  and  that  of  the  coarse  floss  which  can  only 
be  spun,  is  found  to  be  in  the  average  proportion  of  19 
to  1 in  perfect  cocoons.  But  this  does  not  include  the 
outer  floss,  of  a loose  furzy  texture,  which  can  never  be 
reeled. 

1000  ounces  of  perfect  cocoons  have  been  found  to 
produce  150^  ounces  of  pure  cocoon.  Thus  every  per- 
fect ball,  as  soon  as  completed,  contains  more  than  one- 
seventh  part  of  pure  cocoon;  but  this  includes  the  floss 
and  the  pellicles.  I have  stated  the  length  of  the  fila- 
ment at  from  400  to  1200  feet,  and  others  have  esti- 
mated the  length  of  thread  equal  to  from  750  to  1160 
feet.  Count  Dandolo  states  that  the  filament  seldom 
exceeds  1875  feet.  1 have  put  down  as  the  average 
length  900  feet.  Mr.  Pullen  has  stated  the  same. 

Count  Dandolo,  by  good  management,  usually  pro- 
duced at  his  establishment,  140  pounds  of  fine  picked  co- 
coons from  each  ounce  of  eggs,  in  addition  to  the  coarse 
outside  floss.  But  it  has  been  found  possible  to  pro- 
duce 165  pounds  of  cocoons  to  each  ounce  of  eggs,  and  by 
a late  account,  170  pounds  have  been  produced  in  1835, 
by  Henri  Bourdon,  proprietor  at  Ris,  near  Paris,  and  in 
the  north  of  France. 

It  is  estimated,  from  all  the  data  that  Europe  has 
furnished,  that  2,800  worms  are  required,  on  the  ave- 
rage, to  produce  a pound  of  reeled  silk.  In  1790,  the 
gold  medal  of  the  society  for  the  encouragement  of  arts, 
in  England,  was  awarded  to  Mr.  Salvator  Bertezen,  for 
having  raised  five  pounds  of  reeled  silk  from  12,000  silk- 
worms, which  is  2,400  silk-worms  to  the  pound  of  reeled 
silk.  This  average  varies  not  very  materially  from  the 
results  produced  byCount  Dandolo.  The  cocoons  in  all 
the  cases  above  stated  must  have  been  fine  ; and  superior 
to  those  8,000  cocoons  from  which  Mr.  Cobb  obtained 
three  pounds  of  silk,  including  the  floss  as  is  stated  by 
him.  Mr.  Cobb  is  satisfied,  that  2,400  cocoons  to  the 


no 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


pound  of  reeled  silk  is  not  far  from  the  truth,  as  even  a less 
number  he  has  found  sufficient. 

Mayet  has  stated,  that  ten  pounds  of  cocoons  of  supe- 
rior quality  will  produce  a pound  of  reeled  silk.  At  Ce- 
vennes,  where  the  finest  silk  is  produced,  and  where  the 
cocoon  is  cast  out,  when  seven  eighth  parts  are  reeled, 
but  thirteen  pounds  of  cocoons,  of  a thread  of  four  or  five 
cocoons,  are  required  for  a pound  of  the  purest  silk 
in  the  world. 

Count  Hazzi  states,  that  seven  to  ten  pounds  of  co- 
coons will  make  a pound  of  raw  silk.  In  France  some- 
times even  twelve  have  been  required;  while  in  Amer- 
ica, eight  pounds  of  cocoons  will  frequently  produce  a 
pound  of  reeled  silk;  and  Mr.  Cobb  has  stated  that  eight 
pounds  avoirdupois  yielded  from  sixteen  to  eighteen 
ounces  of  silk,  six  to  nine  cocoons  to  the  thread. 

In  1814,  which  was  considered  a season  extremely 
unfavorable  for  silk-worms.  Count  Dandolo  obtained  fif- 
teen ounces  of  very  fine  silk  from  7^  pounds  of  cocoons, 
and  from  the  same  weight  of  refuse  cocoons  he  obtained 
thirteen  ounces.  These  instances  shew  the  result  of 
right  management. 

Let  us  look  at  the  surprising  fact  which  is  stated  by 
Judge  Comstock,  the  author  of  the  valuable  Treatise 
on  the  Culture  of  the  Mulberry  Tree  and  of  Silk  These 
cocoons  were  produced  in  1835  by  Mr.  Lyman  Atwater, 
of  New  Haven,  and  reeled  at  the  factory  of  the  Connec- 
ticut Silk  Manufacturing  Company  in  Hartford.  Judge 
Comstock  was  on  the  spot.  He  states,  that  ‘‘  from  the 
books  of  the  company,  it  appears,  that  from  34^  lbs.  of 
cocoons,  nine  pounds  and  three  ounces  of  which  were 
damaged,  6|-  pounds  of  silk  were  reeled.  By  this  state- 
ment, it  will  be  seen,  that  about  five  pounds  of  cocoons 
yielded  a pound  of  reeled  silk.  “ Part  of  the  silk  was  reel- 
ed on  Mr.  Cobb’s,  and  part  on  Mr.  Dale’s  reel,  by  Miss 
Ann  M.  Benton,  of  Windsor,  a very  careful  and  skilful 
reeler.”  I can  see  no  rvoom  to  doubt  a word  of  this 
statement.  It  will  not  therefore  be  deemed  extravagant, 


PRODUCE  AND  PROFITS  OF  THE  SILK-WORM.  Ill 


if,  with  good  management,  I allow  a pound  of  fine 
reeled  silk  as  the  produce  of  eight  pounds  of  cocoons. 

Count  Dandolo  has  stated,  that  twenty  one  pounds  of 
leaves,  with  economy  in  feeding,  will  produce  pounds 
of  cocoons.  Again  he  has  stated  that,  in  Dalmatia,  he 
has  procured  pounds  of  cocoons  from  fifteen  pounds 
of  leaves.  These  several  statements  allow  fourteen 
pounds  and  ten  pounds  of  leaves,  each  and  severally,  to 
a pound  of  cocoons.  This  is  from  seven  to  ten  pounds 
of  cocoons  to  the  100  pounds  of  leaves.  This  quantity 
of  leaves  then  appears  to  be  sufficient  to  produce  a pound 
of  silk,  with  suitable  economy  in  feeding  and  in  reeling. 
But  allowing  for  some  waste,  both  in  feeding  and  reel- 
ing, I will  state  120  pounds  of  leaves  as  a good  allow- 
ance for  a pound  of  pure  silk.  Even  ]00  pounds  of 
leaves  were  found  sufficient  by  Mr.  Tilloy. 

The  mulberry  tree  in  France  may  be  stripped  of  its 
leaves  in  the  fifth  or  sixth  year,  or  three  years  from  the 
time  of  grafting,  and  the  seventh  year  it  yields  leaves 
worth  one  shilling,  or  twenty  two  cents : and  they  go 
on  increasing  for  twenty  or  thirty  years,  when  the  leaves 
bring  thirty  shillings,  or  $6  66.  Large  trees  in  the 
south  of  France  will  yield  300 pounds ; by  some  accounts 
a great  deal  more. 

The  cost  of  cultivation  is  one  franc,  (18.4)  per  100 
pounds.  The  average  cost  of  leaves  in  good  years  is 
three  francs,  or  fifty-five  cents  per  100  pounds  on  the 
trees,  in  that  country. 

In  some  cases,  the  landlord  finds  eggs  and  leaves,  and 
the  laborers  who  make  and  reel  the  silk  have  half  the 
profits.  The  reeling  begins  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  com- 
pleted, and  continues  till  autumn  : and  a woman  experi- 
enced in  reeling  will  reel  two  pounds  of  silk  in  a day  of 
sixteen  hours. 

The  pound  of  silk,  when  well  reeled,  is  capable  of 
being  converted  into  sixteen  yards  of  the  ordinary  qual- 
ity of  Gros  de  Naples,  or  into  fourteen  yards  of  the  first 
quality,  and  worth  its  weight  in  silver. 


112 


SILK  GROWER'S  GUIDE. 


The  silk  of  Cevennes  in  France  is  probably  the  finest 
in  the  world.  I have  particularly  stated  the  mode  in 
which  it  is  reeled,  for  to  this  cause,  in  a measure,  it 
owes  its  celebrity.  There  is  indeed  one  kind  which  is 
sold  at  Lyons  for  from  f4  09  to  $4  23,  the  English 
pound  : but  there  is  a kind  still  finer,  which  brings 
$8  88  a pound. 

Four  hundred  thousand  pounds  of  silk  of  superior 
quality  was  raised  in  Cevennes  in  1832,  and  since  that 
period,  this  quantity  has  been  greatly  increased ; as 
among  all  employments  of  capital,  none  is  so  productive 
as  the  mulberry  tree.  It  was  yielding  at  the  above 
period  from  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent,  profit  to  the  intel- 
ligent agriculturist.^’ 

I have  already  spoken  of  a description  of  white  silk 
which  is  produced  in  the  department  of  the  Upper  Ar- 
deche,  which  is  of*  a quality  so  superior,  that  it  is  pur- 
chased by  the  lace  manufacturers  of  Normandy  for  more 
than  fifty  francs,  ($9  20)  a pound.  But  a few  years 
since,  it  commanded  a price  as  high  as  150  francs  a 
pound,  equal  to  $27  60. 

Mr.  William  Carpenter,  now  of  Lisbon,  Conn.,  has 
manufactured  silk  at  Spitalfields,  in  London,  for  twenty 
years.  He  is  perfectly  acquainted  with  the  winding, 
warping  and  weaving  of  all  kinds  of  plain  silks,  such  as 
sarsenets,  satins,  gros  de  Naples,  fiorentines  and  vel- 
vets ; also  figured  silks,  florets,  tissues  and  damasks,  all 
which  required  very  different  kinds  of  silk  ; he  must 
therefore  be  considered  a competent  judge.  He  has 
also,  according  to  his  statement  in  the  “ Silk  Culturist^^ 
woven  many  pounds  of  silk  American  growth : and  he 
has  seen  many  samples  of  American  silk,  far  superior  to 
the  Bengal,  China  and  French  silks,  and  nearly  equal 
to  the  best  Italian.  He  has  known  Italian  silk  to  be 
sold  at  a dollar  an  ounce  in  England  before  it  was  man- 
ufactured;  and  the  average  price  is  about  seven  dollars 
a pound.  At  the  present^ time,  says  Mr.  Carpenter,  the 
most  inferior  kinds  of  manufactured  silk  imported  from 


PRODUCE  OF  LAND,  &LC. 


113 


England,  France  and  China,  are  sold  in  this  country 
for  sixteen  dollars  a pound.  And,  as  the  cost  and  fair 
profit  of  manufacturing  cannot  exceed  seven  dollars,  it 
leaves  the  enormous  profit  of  nine  dollars  a pound  for 
the  raw  silk,  which  price  the  Americans  are  now  pay- 
ing to  the  people  of  Italy  and  France. 


SECTION  xx:^viii. 

PRODUCE  OF  LAND,  OF  LABOR,  AND  OF  SILK. 

I have  stated  that  Mr.  Duponceau  raised  in  the  city 
of  Philadelphia  seven  ounces  of  eggs  with  the  labor  of 
two  persons,  and  those  not  fully  employed,  except  the 
last  ten  days,  and  some  occasional  help,  who  were  em- 
ployed to  bring  the  leaves  from  the  country,  two  miles 
distant.  Such  is  the  statement  of  Mr.  Cobb.  G.  B. 
Smith,  Esq.,  a gentleman  practically  acquainted  with 
the  business,  and  one  on  whom  we  may  rely,  has  as- 
sured us,  in  his  publications,  that  ‘‘  the  labor  required 
to  attend  1,000,000  silk-worms  would  be,  the  first  week, 
two  persons;  for  the  second,  four;  for  the  third,  eight; 
for  the  remaining  two,  fifteen  or  twenty.”  Most  of 
these  may  be  girls,  boys  or  aged  women.  The  aggre- 
gate amount  at  the  most,  according  to  this  estimate,  will 
be  but  378  days  of  individual  labor. 

In  Connecticut  a child  of  from  nine  to  twelve  years 
of  age,  will  gather  seventy-five  pounds  of  leaves  in  a 
day,  this  being  called  a day^s  work  in  that  State,  where 
the  trees  are  usually  large  and  difficult  of  access;  and  it 
is  also  stated  that  there,  one  hundred  pounds  of  leaves 
will  produce  one  pound  of  reeled  silk.  And  a child  in 
six  weeks,  or  thirty-six  working  days,  will  gather  at  this 
rate,  sufficient  for  twenty-seven  pounds  of  reeled  silk. 
It  will  readily  occur  that  from  low  plantations  of  trees. 


114 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


in  prime  condition,  a much  greater  amount  might  be 
gathered  with  the  same  labor. 

In  the  “ Silk  Cidturist a valuable  periodical  pub- 
lished at  Hartford,  by  Judge  Comstock,  is  the  statement 
of  Mr.  Harvey  Clark,  who  we  well  know  is  a highly  re- 
spectable citizen  of  Mansfield  in  Connecticut.  This 
account  is  valuable  as  showing  the  amount  of  labor  and 
attendance,  and  of  gathering  the  leaves  from  tall  trees, 
and  of  reeling. 

Mr.  Clark  has  annually  made  thirty-five  pounds  of 
reeled  silk  from  trees  forty  or  fifty  years  old,  and  cover- 
ing half  an  acre,  all  the  labor  of  gathering  the  leaves 
and  attendance,  during  the  first  three  weeks,  being 
performed  by  Mrs.  Clark  and  a young  woman  who 
lives  in  the  family.  After  the  first  three  weeks,  Mr. 
Clark  devotes  himself  entirely  to  the  business.  The 
silk  has  been  reeled  exclusive  by  Mrs.  Clark  and  the 
young  woman,  at  the  rate  of  a pound  and  a half  a day. 
During  the  whole  silk  season  they  have  had  the  care  of 
eight  small  children.  Mr.  Clark  states  that  no  fire  is 
ever  used  in  the  apartments  of  the  silk-worm  by  him  or 
others,  in  Mansfield. 

The  communication  of  M.  A mans  Carrier,  a silk  cul- 
turist  in  Aveyron,  in  France,  to  M.  Bonafoux,  director 
of  the  Royal  Garden  of  Turin,  is  from  the  ‘‘  Farmers 
Register.^^  In  this  particular  account  of  the  profit  of 
a silk  crop  much  is  ascribed  to  the  perfect  mode  of  reel- 
ing, and  full  credit  is  given  to  aid  derived  from  the  coun- 
sels and  assistance  of  M.  Marchetti,  an  Italian  and  po- 
litical refugee,  and  a skilful  filateur  of  silk.  The  crop 
was  raised  in  1833,  from  trees  which  had  been  planted 
eight  years,  on  less  than  half  a hectare  of  land — or  one 
and  a fourth  English  acres. 


PRODUCE  OF  LAND,  SiC. 


115 


The  produce  was  as  follows  : — 

kilograms  white  silk  at  63  francs  the 
kilogram,  1,830/*.  60c. 

2^^  inferior  silk  at  18  francs  the  kilogram,  44  95 

Deduct  for  Portage,  16  00 

1868/.  55c. 

Value  of  the  different  remains  coming  from 

the  remains  of  the  filatures,  115  00 


Sum  realized,  193^.  55c. 

For  expenses  of  management,  171/  75c. 

For  the  filature  and  reeling,  263  85  435  60 


Profit,  1548/  95c. 

The  kilogram  is  2 lbs.  2 oz.  and  4 gr.  avoirdupois — 
the  produce  of  an  English  acre  and  a quarter  amounted 
to  69^  pounds,  and  the  amount  of  sales  $350,  or  about 
$5  per  pound.  The  net  profit  also  after  deducting  all 
expenses,  will  be  found  to  be  $280  or  more  to  the  Eng- 
lish acre  from  a young  plantation.  The  number  of  trees 
is  not  stated  in  this  account. 

1 shall  close  this  section  with  a calculation,  and  esti- 
mate, which  has  been  formed  with  very  particular  refer- 
ence to  the  best  informed  in  America. 

Mr.  D’Homergue  in  his  letter  to  the  Hon.  Andrew 
Stephenson,  Speaker  of  Congress,  has  indeed  stated, 
that  3000  mulberry  trees  set  on  an  acre  of  land,  will 
produce  in  seven  years  a crop  of  leaves  of  90,000  lbs. 
in  a season,  sufficient  for  7,500  lbs.  of  cocoons.  Again 
the  ‘‘Massachusetts  Journal  ” of  1828,  Vol.  x.  page  137, 
says,  that  “ a single  acre  planted  with  mulberry  trees 
will  produce  from  five  to  six  hundred  pounds  of  raw 
silk.” 

Yet  while  I admit  that  the  statements  of  M.  D’Hom- 
ergue and  the  Massachusetts  Journal  may  be  very  much 
overrated,  I must  also  speak  of  the  statements  of  Messrs. 


116 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


Clark  and  Carrier  as  the  counterpart.  Both  of  them  will 
be  found  to  fall  very  far  short  of  what  we  may  in  truth 
accomplish  in  our  climate,  if  we  do  but  proceed  aright. 

The  plan  of  forming  plantations  with  the  mulberry 
trees  at  an  extended  distance  asunder,  I reject,  as  in- 
consistent with  economy — when  we  consider  the  pro- 
longed outlay,  and  the  delay  of  the  forty  years  which 
may  be  necessary  completely  to  cover  the  ground,  with 
trees  of  enormous  size,  difficult  alike  of  management 
and  of  access. 

A Dwarf  Mulberry  tree  plantation^  of  a single  acre, 
with  the  trees  set  in  rows  eight  feet  asunder,  and  two 
and  a half  feet  apart  in  the  row,  will  contain  2160  trees  ; 
each  tree  at  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  with  the  best  of 
cultivation,  will  produce,  as  has  been  estimated,  ten 
pounds  of  leaves  in  a season.  And  ten  pounds  of  leaves 
yielded  by  each  single  tree,  will  produce  250  cocoons — 
or  the  21,600  pounds  of  leaves  which  are  produced  on 
an  acre,  will  yield  540,000  cocoons — and  3000  cocoons 
will  produce  one  pound  of  reeled  silk,  which  will  make 
the  amount  equal  to  180  pounds,  to  the  acre — or  a 
plantation  of  100  acres  will  yield  18,000  pounds  of  silk, 
and  this  silk,  when  loell  reeled,  at  the  very  low  estimate 
of  four  dollars  a pound,  would  bring  $72,000  gross 
amount  per  annum  ; but  an  acre  composed  of  but  half 
this  number  of  trees,  set  five  feet  apart  in  the  row, 
might  require  full  nine  or  ten  years  to  produce  this  same 
quantity. 

If  any  there  be  who  might  suspect  that  I had  esti- 
mated the  quantity  of  green  leaves,  the  produce  of  an 
acre,  at  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  too  high  at  21,600 
pounds,  I might  refer  them  to  the  estimate  of  Mr. 
D’Homergue,  and  perhaps  some  others,  who  have  calcu- 
lated the  produce  of  the  leaves  of  an  acre  of  mulberry 
trees  of  seven  years  of  age,  at  more  than  four  times  the 
amount  which  1 have  stated. 

Let  it  also  be  noticed,  that  in  allowing  ten  pounds  of 
leaves  for  250  cocoons  of  ^he  size  I have  named,  I may 


PRODUCE  OF  LAND,  &C. 


117 


have  allowed  largely^  as  this  is  120  pounds  of  leaves  to 
the  pound  of  reeled  silk.  Even  100  pounds  of  leaves  to 
the  pound  of  reeled  silk  has  been  found  sufficient,  with 
economy  in  feeding,  as  Count  Dandolo  and  others 
have  proved.  See  also  page  111,  where  in  M.  Tilloy’s 
experiments,  and  in  each  of  the  two  cases,  but  fifteen 
pounds  of  leaves  were  required  for  500  silkworms.  My 
estimate  is  founded  on  the  calculation  of  a single  crop  of 
leaves  only,  during  a whole  season.  But  in  our  favore 
climate  and  with  our  prolonged  summers  we  must  ca^“ 
culate  on  successive  crops  in  a season  ; on  more  tha^ 
one  single  gathering,  or  harvest. 

This  is  the  calculation  of  the  produce  of  an  acre  of 
young  trees  of  six  or  seven  years  of  age  ; but  an  acre, 
in  its  prime,  must  produce  an  amount  much  greater. 
According  to  Count  Dandolo,  198  pounds  is  estimated 
as  the  produce  of  an  acre  of  large  trees.  Citizen 
Genet,  of  New  York,  and  formerly  the  Minister  of 
France,  has  made  an  estimate  of  the  produce  of  an  acre 
in  hedge  form  at  666  pounds.  Mr.  Daniel  Bradley,  in- 
deed, considers  that  1,000,000  silk  worms  may  be  fed 
from  the  acre  of  hedges  in  its  prime.  I had  arrived  at 
the  same  conclusion,  and  believe  this  estimate  cannot  be 
very  far  from  truth. 

I have  stated  that  3000  cocoons  would  produce  a 
pound  of  fine  reeled  silk,  consequently  1,000,000  co- 
coons would  produce  333  pounds.  I have  also  in  the 
beginning  of  this  section  put  down  the  days  of  labor,  on 
good  authority,  at  378  for  this  number  of  silkworms. 
According  to  these  statements,  it  will  be  easy  to  calcu- 
late the  nett  profit  which  may  be  expected  from  1,000,000 
silkworms.  If  the  silk  is  reeled  well  it  will  bring  $4 
a pound,  making  the  whole  amount  of  $1332  as  the 
produce  of  an  acre  of  trees  in  its  prime.  But  if  reeled 
as  at  Cevennes,  it  will  bring  a great  deal  more.  From 
this  gross  amount  we  must  deduct  the  labor,  which  at 
75  cents  a day  will  amount  to  $284,  a high  estimate  for 
the  labor  when  we  consider  it  is  so  easy  as  to  be  chiefly 


118 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


performed  by  females,  and  by  girls  and  boys.  Yet  this 
will  leave  a balance  of  $1048  as  the  nett  produce  of  an 
acre  of  land  in  its  prime  estate. 

I have  said  nothing  of  the  expense  of  reeling,  from  a 
perfect  confidence  that  the  bounty  offered  in  several  of 
the  States,  including  Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and 
Vermont,  would  be  sufficient  to  pay  for  reeling  it  well. 
This  bounty  will  vary  from  fifty  cents  to  eighty  cents  a 
pound.  I have  also  stated  that  in  France  a woman  will 
reel  two  pounds  a day,  and  reel  it  well ; or  silk  of  that 
quality  which  when  manufactured  is  worth  $16  a pound. 
Of  other  silk,  or  that  which  is  reeled  of  two  or  three,  or 
four  to  five  cocoons,  a woman  experienced  may  be  able 
to  reel  with  perfect  ease  but  a single  pound  a day.  But 
such  silk,  as  I have  elsewhere  shewn,  will  command  an 
extraordinary  price. 

But  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  and  the  great  State  of 
Pennsylvania,  have  offered  bounties,  equivalent  to  $2  a 
pound,  for  every  pound  of  silk  which  shall  be  raised 
and  reeled  within  those  States ; and  this  bounty  is  to 
continue  for  five  years.  And  inasmuch  as  the  whole 
cost  of  raising  and  reeling,  has  been  estimated  by  good 
judges,  as  not  exceeding  $2  a pound,  it  is  evident 
that  the  whole  value  of  the  silk  must  be  clear  gain  to 
the  grower,  after  he  has  received  the  bounty  thus  liber- 
ally offered  by  those  States.  Hence  the  mighty  and 
extraordinary  impulse  which  the  silk  business  has  of 
late  received.  Other  States  also  contemplate  the  offer 
of  similar  bounties. 


DIVISION  OF  LABOR. 


119 


SECTION  XXXIX. 

DIVISION  OF  LABOR. 

The  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  tree,  and  the  raising 
of  silk,  may  each  with  advantage  be  conducted  as  sepa- 
rate branches  of  the  same  department.  The  avenues  of 
the  mulberry  tree  on  the  plains  of  Reggio,  with  the 
habitations  for  the  insects  which  are  on  either  side,  are 
the  property  of  wealthy  citizens  who  reside  in  Reggio ; 
these  furnish  to  another  class  the  leaves,  and  every 
necessary  requisite,  receiving  in  return  two-thirds  the 
product.  At  other  places,  as  in  France,  the  profits  are 
sometimes  equally  divided.  In  France,  also,  the  plan- 
tations of  the  mulberry  constitute  in  many  places  a part 
of  the  real  estate  of  the  landed  proprietors,  the  leaves 
being  annually  sold  on  the  trees.  And  a gentleman  who 
has  resided  many  years  in  France,  informs  us  of  one 
plantation  of  five  thousand  young  trees,  which,  when 
well  grown,  it  was  computed  would  bring  annually  one 
dollar  each  for  a single  crop  of  leaves.  In  that  country, 
whole  families,  at  the  suitable  season,  find  employ  in 
gathering  the  leaves,  as  an  exclusive  occupation.  The 
reeling  may  also  form  a distinct  branch,  although  it  is 
intimately  and  generally  connected  with  the  culture. 

Though  there  are  silk  factories  in  Italy,  yet  the 
greater  part  of  their  fabrics  are  of  domestic  manufac- 
ture. The  manufacturer,  after  having  purchased  the 
silk  of  those  who  raise  it,  and  after  it  has  been  reeled  in 
the  manner  best  suited  to  the  fabrics  he  desires,  pre- 
pares it  for  the  loom,  by  dyeing,  warping,  &c.,  and  then 
puts  it  out  to  the  weaver,  who  weaves  it  in  a hand  loom. 
The  weaving  is  performed  by  both  males  and  females. 
It  is  then  finished  and  put  up  for  market. 

Not  only  in  Turkey,  but  also  in  many  parts  of  Italy 
and  France,  the  leavjes  of  the  mulberry  are  sold  in  the 


120 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


market  by  weight,  to  those  who  make  it  their  business 
to  rear  the  silkworm  in  cities.  But  judgment  is  requir- 
ed by  the  purchaser  in  the  selection. 

In  other  places,  the  trees  are  hired  by  the  season,  the 
price  paid  being  from  four  to  six  francs  for  each  tree, 
according  to  its  size  and  condition.  In  France,  a well 
cultivated  tree  will  usually  produce  thirty  pounds  of 
leaves,  but  in  the  south  of  France  there  are  many  trees 
which  will  produce  some  150  pounds,  and  some  300 
pounds  of  leaves,  and  some  trees  produce  even  more. 


SECTION  XL. 

REMARKS  ON  THE  PRICE  OF  LABOR. 

It  has  been  remarked  by  the  Baron  Charles  Dupin,  who 
is  deemed  high  authority,  for  sagacity  and  distinguished 
research  into  all  subjects  connected  with  questions  of  com- 
mercial and  political  interest,  that  in  all  the  most  important 
branches  of  manufacture,  a superiority  the  most  decided, 
has  been  attained  by  those  people  with  whom  labor  bears 
a higher  price  than  with  their  rivals.  He  instances  in 
proof  the  cotton  manufactures  of  England,  which  are 
afforded  both  cheaper,  and  of  better  quality,  than  by 
any  other  people  of  Europe,  although  the  price  of  labor 
is  dearer  in  Great  Britain  than  in  any  other  country  of 
the  Eastern  World.  Also,  he  instances  the  manufac- 
ture of  linens,  in  which  the  Dutch  and  the  Belgians 
surpass  and  undersell  the  Bretons,  although  the  price  of 
labor  is  higher  in  Holland  and  in  Belgium  than  in  Brit- 
tany. Furthermore,  he  has  shown  that  in  the  produc- 
tion of  fine  woollens,  France  surpasses  and  undersells 
Spain,  although  the  price  of  labor  is  higher  in  France 
than  in  the  latter  kingdom. 

The  striking  superiority,  in  these  instances,  is  ascribed 


REMARKS  ON  THE  PRICE  OF  LABOR. 


121 


by  him  to  higher  attainments  in  mechanical  ingenuity 
and  skill,  and  a more  eminent  degree  of  commercial 
knowledge  and  enterprize. 

The  curious  machinery  for  forming  organzine,  which 
for  a long  period  existed  only  in  Piedmont,  was  intro- 
duced to  England,  in  1718,  by  Sir  Thomas  Lombe, 
who  established  vast  mills  at  Derby.  At  the  present 
day  the  machines  for  throwing  silk  are  wonderfully  im- 
proved; cast  iron  geering  being  now  substituted  for 
the  cumbersome  wooden  wheels,  and  metallic  bearings 
having  superseded  the  shoulders  of  wood,  the  rough 
wrought  iron  spindles  being  now  replaced  t\dth  those  of 
steel  accurately  turned  ; and  with  diminished  power  the 
spindles  of  the  English  now  revolve  wdth  more  than 
four-fold  speed.  So  decided  is  this  superiority,  that 
while  the  throwsters  of  France  and  Italy  are  still  con- 
tented if  their  spindles  do  but  revolve  from  300, to  400 
times  in  a minute,  those  of  the  English  are  now  per- 
forming from  2000  to  3000;  but  by  a late  improvement 
of  Mr.  Ritson,  they  are  now  made  to  perform  4500  re- 
volutions in  a minute  or  75  in  a second  of  time. 

On  a careful  investigation  it  will  usually  be  found  that 
the  apparent  difference  in  the  price  of  labor  betw^een 
different  countries,  is  in  many  cases  rather  nominal  than 
real;  and  that  in  those  countries  where  labor  is  highest, 
in  regard  to  price,  there  the  greatest  encouragement  is 
always  offered  for  the  exercise  of  the  ingenuity  of  man, 
in  curtailing  and  diminishing  its  amount  in  every  possi- 
ble mode.  Sufficient  and  ample  evidence  of  this  im- 
portant fact  is  taking  place  daily  before  our  own  eyes, 
and  in  our  own  country. 

Every  experienced  farmer  and  artizan  well  knows  that 
low^  priced  labor  is  far  from  being  the  most  profitable  to 
the  employer  ; the  very  reverse  of  this  being  usually 
true;  the  cost  of  board  being  equal. 

In  the  old  world,  lands  are  very  dear,  and  their  cul- 
tivation to  a very  considerable  extent,  is  effected  by 
manual  labor.  The  poor,  by  various  acts  of  oppression 
9 


122 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


invented,  are  constrained  to  labor  at  a very  low  price. 
With  us  lands  are  comparatively  cheap,  and  are  mostly 
cultivated  by  animal  labor.  The  cattle  which  roam  on 
our.  boundless  prairies  and  pastures,  and  on  the  innu- 
merable hills,  afford  us  aids  which  will  enable  us  to 
compete  with  any  nation  on  earth  in  every  production 
of  field  cultivation. 

Our  prairies  and  plains  are  now  mown  not  unfre- 
quently  by  revolving  scythes  attached  to  a horizontal 
wheel,  or  by  scythes  having  a lateral  movement,  and 
moved  forward  by  the  power  of  horses,  and  a horse  rake 
collects  the  winrow.  Our  fields  of  wheat  are  not  unu- 
sually reaped  by  machines  propelled  by  horses,  and 
afterwards  threshed  by  the  same  powder. 

The  exhaustless  treasures  of  the  forest  and  of  mineral 
coal,  offer  resources  unknown.  The  innumerable  rivers 
and  rapid  streams  afford  us  perpetual  and  immeasurable 
resources  of  labor  saving  power. 

In  China  and  in  India,  where  the  price  of  labor  is 
exceedingly  low,  their  looms  are  moved  exclusively  by 
muscular  pow'er  and  human  strength;  it  is  much  the 
same  in  Italy.  Yet  however  low  the  price  of  wages  in 
those  countries,  the  poor  weavers  of  China,  and  of 
India,  can  never  compete  with  our  power  looms  for  cot- 
ton and  for  silk,  by  which  common  cotton  is  now  wove 
for  less  than  a cent  a yard.  Even  a poor  and  precarious 
subsistence  alone  they  could  never  obtain,  in  the  despe- 
rate conflict  with  our  engines,  moved  as  they  are  by  the 
resistless  powders  of  water  and  of  fire. 

In  France,  the  wood  growers,  and  the  mines  of  iron, 
and  iron  works,  are  protected  by  laws.  These  are 
generally  the  property  of  the  rich.  Of  a population  of 
32,000,000,  but  170,000,  or  about  the  proportion  of  1 in 
200  are  allowed  to  vote.  These  are  the  rich,  and,  as 
might  be  expected,  the  poor  are  oppressed  by  dreadfully 
disproportionate  taxes.  At  Lyons,  the  taxes  for  town 
dues  of  the  laborers  ar^  heavy,  amounting  to  fifty-four 
francs  per  annum  in  1835,  from  their  scanty  earnings. 


REMARKS  ON  THE  PRICE  OF  LABOR. 


123 


But  the  silk  manufacture  is  not  protected,  except  by  a 
small  duty  on  imports  of  manufactured  silks,  of  from 
fifteen  to  seventeen  per  cent.  It  is  fostered  by  the  good 
taste  of  the  people  ; it  is  therefore  the  only  trade  in  the 
kingdom  which  is  never  in  distress.  In  matters  of  taste, 
and  in  the  formation  of  the  most  beautiful  figured  pat- 
terns in  silk,  the  taste  of  the  French  controls  the  world. 
The  mere  handiwork,  or  execution  of  the  weaving,  of 
the  most  curious  pattern,  is  a simple  affair  with  the 
Jacquard  Loom.  Every  establishment  at  Lyons  has  one 
or  more  artists,  and  artists  schools  are  established  at 
Lyons.  It  is  the  cultivated  taste  of  the  nation,  so  cele- 
brated for  excelling  in  all  that  is  fine  in  the  arts.  New 
patterns  are  formed  in  the  imagination  by  new  combina- 
tions of  flowers  gathered  from  the  field  and  tastefully 
arranged.  From  these  the  pattern  is  drawn.  The 
botanist,  the  florist,  even  every  weaver  exerts  his  skill. 

It  is  true,  that  in  France  there  are  no  taxes  imposed 
on  the  mulberry  tree,  but  there  is  a general  land  tax. 
In  Italy  the  mulberry  trees  are  taxed. 

In  France,  as  many  women  as  men  are  employed  in 
their  silk  manufactories.  This  practice  was  introduced 
from  necessity  by  the  conscription  laws  of  Napoleon. 
In  China  a great  proportion  of  the  operatives  in  the 
silk  manufactures  are  females,  according  to  Staunton. 
In  Italy  the  weaving  is  done  by  both  males  and  females, 
and  much  in  the  domestic  way,  as  much  of  the  plain 
weaving  is  now  also  done  in  France,  and  in  India, 
and  China,  and  all  other  countries  where  the  silk  is 
raised. 

In  those  countries,  two  persons  are  required  at  one 
reel.  Throwing  mills  which  are  moved  by  water,  there 
are,  indeed,  it  seems  in  Italy,  but  the  operatives,  who  are 
mostly  females,  are  prejudiced  against  machinery,  and 
do  most  of  the  work  by  hand. 

The  celebrated  philanthropist  Montesquieu  was  op- 
posed to  labor  saving  machinery ; this  only  proves  that 
Montesquieu  was  theoretical  rather  than  practical,  and 


124 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


is  excusable  only  considering  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 
The  doctrine  that  labor  saving  machines  are  injurious 
to  community,  is  the  doctrine  of  despotism.  It  is  the 
principle  that  one  portion  of  the  human  race  were 
formed  exclusively  for  labor,  that  another  class  might 
live  in  indolence  and  effeminacy. 

When  the  poiver  looms  for  weaving  cotton  were  in- 
vented and  introduced  to  practice  in  England,  they  were 
at  first  opposed  and  put  down  by  the  anarchists  and 
infuriate  mobs.  Who  has  not  heard  of  the  mobs  of 
Birmingham,  of  Manchester,  and  of  Spitalfields,  on 
every  occasion  when  new  and  very  important  machines 
were  invented  and  attempted  to  be  introduced  for  the 
saving  of  labor.  It  is  otherwise  now.  Poivcr  looms 
for  weaving  plain  silks,  have  certainly,  years  since,  been 
invented  in  England;  but  we  believe  they  are  little 
adopted  in  practice  from  this  only  cause. 

In  the  single  hand  ribbon  loom,  the  weaver  could 
make  but  a piece  and  a half  a week;  but  with  the  engine 
loom,  six  pieces  in  a week  are  now  made.  Five  shil- 
lings for  each  piece  of  ribbon  wove,  was  paid  to  the  en- 
gine loom  weavers,  in  the  winters  of  1831-2,  yet  it  is 
stated  that  these  looms  were  not  common,  owing  to  the 
prejudices  of  the  workmen.  Nothing,  in  fact,  but  the 
pressure  of  Swiss  competition,  has  forced  this  loom  into 
use  in  England  and  in  France. 

The  bar  loom  for  weaving  ribbons,  was  a Swiss  in- 
Tention,  by  two  brothers  of  St.  Etienne.  For  this  they 
were  persecuted  by  the  ribbon  weavers,  and  driven  with 
execration  to  the  depths  of  misery.  The  last  died  not 
long  since  in  an  hospital,  the  victim  of  abuse  and  neg- 
lect. Glad  were  the  weavers  of  this  very  district,  of  late 
years,  to  adopt  this  loom,  which  has  now  become  their 
favorite  mechanism,  and  in  almost  universal  use. 

The  inventor  of  the  beautiful  and  famous  mechanism 
called  the  Jacquard  loom,,  was  originally  an  obscure 
straw  hat  manufacturer,\  M.  Jacquard,  who  had  never 
turned  his  attention  to  mechanics.  For  this  he  received 


REMARKS  ON  THE  PRICE  OF  LABOR. 


125 


the  patronage  of  Napoleon,  and  was  rewarded  by  him 
with  a pension  of  1000  crowns.  It  waS  not,  however, 
but  with  extreme  difficulty,  that  he  was  enabled  to  in- 
troduce his  machine  into  use  with  the  silk  weavers. 
Thrice  was  he  exposed  to  imminent  danger  of  assassi- 
nation, until  finally,  the  official  conservators  of  the  trade 
of  Lyons,  broke  up  the  loom  in  the  public  square,  and 
the  several  parts  being  sundered,  the  iron  was  sold  for 
old  iron,  and  the  wmod  for  wood,  and  the  name  of  the 
inventor  of  the  famous  Jacquard  loom  was  consigned  to 
universal  hatred  and  ignominy.  Nor  was  it  till  the 
French  began  to  feel  the  resistless  force  of  foreign  com- 
petition,  that  they  recalled  to  their  aid  the  admirable 
invention  of  their  countryman,  as  their  only  shield  and 
protection. 

The  absurdity  of  the  dogma  of  Montesquieu  and 
some  others,  that  the  labor  saving  power  of  machinery, 
is  productive  of  no  permanent  good  to  community,  is 
beautifully  illustrated  in  the  following  description  of  the 
comforts  of  an  Italian  silk  mill,  by  an  able  modern  trav- 
eller. I have  introduced  it  from  the  work  of  Dr.  Ure, 
and  it  was  extracted  by  him,  from  ^^Mrs.  Jamieson's 
Diary  of  an  Ennuyee,"  p.  82. 

There  were  vast  groves  of  mulberry  trees  between 
Verona  and  Padua;  and  we  visited  some  of  the  silk 
mills,  in  which  the  united  strength  of  men  invariably 
performed  those  operations  which  in  England  are  ac- 
complished by  steam  or  water.  I saw  in  a huge  hori- 
zontal wheel,  about  a dozen  of  these  poor  creatures 
laboring  so  hard,  that  my  very  heart  ached  to  see  them, 
and  I begged  that  the  machine  might  be  stopped  that  I 
might  speak  to  them  ; but  when  it  was  stopped,  and  I ^ 
beheld  their  half  savage,  half  stupified,  I had  almost 
said,  half  brutified  countenances,  I could  not  utter  a 
single  word,  but  gave  them  something  and  turned 
away.”  Such  is  the  account  which  this  lady  has  given 
us. 

Silk  is  an  absorbent,  and  will  absorb  ten  per  cent,  of 


126 


SILK  GROWER  S GUIDE. 


moisture.  The  temperature  and  the  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere have  a great  effect  on  the  filature  and  spinning  of 
silk.  Both  are  favorable  in  Piedmont.  Our  own  climate 
is  equally  favored  from  the  same  causes. 

Our  lands  are  fertile,  abundant,  and  cheap,  compared 
with  those  of  all  other  countries  where  silk  is  cultivated. 
No  doubt  can  exist,  that  the  new  plant,  so  remarkable 
for  the  vigor  of  its  growth,  and  the  promptitude  with 
which  its  foliage  is  renewed,  will  afford  the  needful  suc- 
cession of  food  for  a two  fold  harvest,  thus  at  once 
being  productive  of  a saving  of  half  the  land  and  half 
the  labor  of  cultivation.  The  leaf  also,  from  its  superior 
quality  and  size,  will  afford  a saving  of  half  the  expense 
of  gathering  the  food. 

By  cultivating  the  mulberry  tree  in  hedge  rows,  it  is 
estimated  that  the  ground  will,  in  a short  space  of  time, 
produce  a double  amount  of  food  which  can  be  obtained 
in  any  other  \vay.  And  it  is  also  estimated  that  any 
equal  amount  of  leaves  may  be  gathered  from  the  trees 
in  hedge  rows,  at  one  half  the  labor  and  expense  which 
would  be  required  from  standard  trees.  The  hurdles  of 
netting  on  which  the  insects  may  be  fed,  it  is  computed 
will  be  productive  of  a very  important  saving  of  time, 
and  of  labor,  which  is  usually  bestowed  on  the  insects. 

By  the  aid  of  water,  or  of  steam  power,  we  shall  be 
enabled  to  dispense  with  the  labor  of  a girl  to  turn  the 
reel,  which  will  be  productive  of  another  very  material 
saving;  and  finally,  by  the  aid  of  power  looms,  which  have 
been  recently  introduced  for  weaving  plain  silks,  it  is 
confidently  affirmed  that  a woman  experienced  in  weav- 
ing, will  be  enabled  to  weave  fifty  yards  in  a day. 


USES  AND  FABRICS  OF  SILK. 


127 


SECTION  XLI. 


USES  AND  FABRICS  OF  SILK. 


Velvet.  One  of  the  richest  and  most  beautiful 
fabrics  of  silk  is  velvet.  This,  however,  is  compara- 
tively of  modern  invention  in  Italy.  But  the  most 
beautiful  are  now  produced  in  Germany,  and  latterly  in 
England.  The  plain  silks  are  variously  denominated. 

Persian  Sarsnets,  Gros  de  Naples,  Ducapes,  and  a 
great  variety  with  other  names,  belong  to  the  class  of 
plain  silks,  and  differ  only  in  the  thickness  of  the  fabric, 
or  in  the  quality  of  the  materials  which  are  used  in  the 
manufacture.  Persian  silk  is  extremely  flimsy  in  its 
texture,  and  has  been  nearly  superseded  by  sarsnet. 
Sarsnet,  wdiich  formerly  constituted  the  main  materials 
for  garments,  is  now  chiefly  employed  for  lining  them. 

Gros  de  Naples  is  now  used  to  form  the  substance  of 
garments,  and  for  this  purpose  has  taken  the  place  of 
the  former  qualities.  It  is  stouter  and  harder  thrown, 
and  is  woven  with  greater  care  and  labor,  the  threads 
made  more  close  and  compact.  Ducapes  are  also  stout, 
plain  wove  silk,  but  the  texture  is  softer  than  Gros  de 
Naples. 

Gauze  is  a very  thin,  light,  transparent  substance, 
much  used  for  veils  for  more  common  use.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  derive  its  name  from  Gaza,  a city  near  the 
confines  of  Egypt,  in  Palestine. 

Silk  Damask  is  a stout,  compact,  twilled  fabric 
usually  of  one  color,  but  of  a variety  of  figured  pat-*, 
terns.  It  was  formerly  employed  for  garments,  but  its-^ 
use  is  now  principally  confined  to  ornamental  furniture 
for  the  decoration  of  houses  and  of  churches.  The 
manufacture  is  supposed  to  have  come  from  Damascus. 

The  French  have  long  had  an  imitation  of  Damask 
called  Cafard,  or  counterfeit,  which  was  formed,  the 


128 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


warp  of  silk,  but  the  woof  of  linen,  woollen,  cotton,  or 
even  of  hair.  Similar  imitations  come  from  India,  and 
possessing  a good  degree  of  beauty,  are  much  used  at 
the  present  day. 

Satin  is  a twilled  fabric,  of  a peculiar  description, 
seven-eighths  of  the  warp  being  kept  floating  on  the  sur- 
face, and  exposed  to  view.  The  beautiful  finish  and  lus- 
tre is  communicated  by  passing  it  through  heated  cylin- 
ders. 

Crape  is  a light,  transparent  article,  woven  plain,  but 
prepared  by  a peculiar  process  in  a mill,  and  stiffened 
by  a gum. 

The  elegant  figured  silks,  of  a vast  variety  of  patterns, 
are  now  woven  by  the  curious  machine  of  M.  Jacquard, 
with  a wonderful  saving  of  labor  and  of  time. 

The  surfaces  of  plain  silks  are  now  embossed  by  be- 
ing passed  between  two  metallic  rollers  which  are  exactly 
fitted  to  each  other,  and  in  one  of  which  the  intended 
pattern  is  sunk  in  the  cylinder,  and  in  the  other  cylin- 
der it  is  raised.  This  process  is  extensively  employed 
for  ornamenting  ribbons,  vest  patterns,  &/C.  The  effect 
is  extremely  tasteful  and  beautiful.  One  of  the  cylin- 
ders is  hollow,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  a red  hot 
iron. 

Many  substantial  and  beautiful  fabrics  are  formed  of 
a combination  of  silk  and  worsted.  Bombazine  is  formed 
of  silk  and  worsted,  generally  woven  grey  and  dyed  af- 
terwards. Other  beautiful  varieties  are  formed  of  silk 
and  cottons.  Varieties  of  vestings,  varieties  of  heavy 
damask,  concan,  seersuckers  and  other  fabrics  from  In- 
dia and  China,  also  elegant  imitations  of  figured  silk 
for  ladies’  dresses,  are  now  formed  in  France  of  cotton 
and  silk.  Very  beautiful  hats  are  now  formed  of  felt, 
with  the  covering  of  silk  plush,  which  can  hardly  be 
distinguished  from  the  finest  beaver,  to  which  they  are 
so  far  superior  that  while  the  latter  is  extremely  liable 
to  lose  its  color  and  lustre,  becoming  rusty ^ the  hats 
formed  of  silk  retain  their  glossy  jet  black  for  a double 
length  of  time. 


SUCCESSIVE  CROPS  OF  SILK. 


129 


Silk  either  constitutes  the  chief  material,  or  enters 
into  the  formation  of  almost  every  article  of  wearing 
apparel,  on  account  of  its  extraordinary  strength.  Its 
uses  are  indeed  almost  infinite. 

Much  silk  is  used  in  the  habiliments  and  equipments 
of  armies ; — much  is  used  in  the  splendid  decorations 
of  our  halls  and  especially  of  our  churches. 

Well  reeled  silk,  it  is  stated  on  good  authority,  brings 
a higher  price,  even  than  the  sewing  silk  of  Connecti- 
cut, and  the  waste  of  materials  is  comparatively  nothing. 
How  important  then  that  the  silk  should  be  well 
reeled ; when  even  the  bounty  of  fifty  cents  per  pound 
which  is  now  offered  by  the  Legislature  of  Massachu- 
setts, for  every  pound  of  silk  which  may  be  reeled 
within  the  Commonwealth,  will  soon  be  pay  sufficient 
to  enable  a woman  to  reel  it  well.  Connecticut  too  has 
offered  a bounty.  Other  States  also  have,  as  I have 
already  stated,  offered  bounties  for  five  years,  of  two 
dollars  a pound,  for  the  raising  and  reeling,  which  it  is 
believed  is  a sum  fully  adequate  to  pay  not  only  the  ex- 
pense of  reeling  well,  but  also  of  raising  the  silk. 

Silk  is  a hygrometric  substance,  as  it  will  absorb  as 
much  as  ten  per  cent,  of  moisture.  In  case  of  suspicion 
of  fraud,  the  silk  is  enclosed  in  wire  and  exposed  to  a 
gentle  stove  heat  equal  to  78  deg.,  and  afterwards  weighed, 
till  it  loses  not  more  than  per  cent,  a day  ; this  is  the 
pj^actice  in  France.  Silk  is  of  a nature  imperishable  in 
a remarkable  degree.  It  has  been  dug  up  from  graves 
and  the  subterraneous  mansions  of  the  dead,  where  it  had 
lain  buried  for  years,  and  found  entire  and  uninjured. 


SECTION  XLII. 

SUCCESSIVE  CROPS  OF  SILK. 

From  the  present  encouraging  appearances,  we  are 
induced  to  believe,  that  instead  of  one  single  and  soli- 
tary crop  of  silk  in  a year,  we  may  yet  be  enabled,  in 


130 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


our  climate,  and  with  our  prolonged  summers,  to  raise 
not  merely  two  crops  of  silk  a year,  with  a void  interval 
of  time  between  them,  but  numerous  crops  of  different 
ages  at  the  same  time  and  in  rapid  succession  for  a sea- 
son. With  the  complete  establishment  of  such  a sys- 
tem, a new  era  with  us  will  commence.  I have  called 
this  The  American  System^  because  this  is  the  system 
which  seems  best  of  all  adapted  for  America.  There 
are  mulberries  which  in  our  climate  will  renew  their 
foliage  suddenly,  and  for  numerous  successive  times  in 
a season.  The  trees  will  bear  stripping  twice  and  even 
thrice  in  a season,  which  is  not  the  case  with  the  white 
mulberry,  even  in  a good  portion  of  Italy.  Where  a 
regular  succession  of  crops  can  thus  be  obtained,  with 
a diminished  proportion  of  labor,  of  land,  of  cultivation, 
of  habitations  and  of  furniture,  for  the  successive  gen- 
erations of  insects,  how  greatly  augmented  must  be  the 
profit. 

Some,  I am  aware,  might  object,  on  the  supposition 
that  the  plan  has  been  before  tried  a hundred  times  in 
Italy,  in  France,  and  other  countries.  Not  a doubt  ex- 
ists but  it  has  been  tried  ; but  v/e  have  no  evidence 
whatever  that  in  a suitable  climate  it  has  ever  been  tried 
fairly  and  aright  and  failed. 

Count  Dandolo  has  indeed  advanced  the  opinion  that 
in  Italy  it  is  disadvantageous  to  obtain  more  than  one 
crop  in  each  season.  He  affirms  that  in  that  climate 
the  mulberry  tree  cannot  bear  the  continual  stripping 
of  its  leaves  without  injury.  His  remarks  however  must 
have  reference  exclusively  to  the  ivliite  mulherry^  since 
the  morus  multicaulis  was  not  known  in  any  part  of  Eu- 
rope at  the  time  his  celebrated  work  was  written. 

In  the  latitude  of  Paris,  from  the  latest  information 
which  I have  just  received  from  that  country  during  the 
past  year,  it  is  confidently  affirmed,  on  high  authority, 
that  by  the  acquisition  of  the  Chinese  mulberry,  a doubt 
no  longer  exists  that  twQ  crops  of  silk  may  be  obtained 
in  a season,  even  in  the  northern  departments  of  France, 
where  never  more  than  a single  crop  could  be  obtained 


SUCCESSIVE  CROPS  OF  SILK. 


131 


before.  Neither  could  the  remarks  of  Count  Dandolo 
have  had  reference  to  other  climates.  In  Malta  the 
mulberry  makes  twice  the  growth  that  it  does  in  Italy  ; 
but  in  India,  its  growth  and  verdure  are  perpetual. 

On  the  authority  of  Monsieur  Nollet,  in  Tuscany, 
Italy,  and  especially  in  the  country  around  Florence,  the 
same  number  of  silk-worms  are  reared,  and  the  same 
quantity  of  silk  is  produced  on  half  the  land  and  half 
the  number  of  mulberry  trees  that  are  required  in  Pied- 
mont. The  silk-worms  being  hatched  at  two  distinct 
periods,  the  first  brood  are  fed  upon  the  first  leaves  of 
the  spring,  and  these  having  passed  through  their  vari- 
ous evolutions,  other  eggs  are  hatched,  and  the  insects 
are  nourished  from  a second  crop  of  leaves  from  the 
same  trees. 

The  same  plan  is  adopted  in  China,  where  two  crops 
of  silk  are  raised  in  the  year.  In  some  parts  of  India, 
and  other  parts  of  Asia,  eight  and  even  twelve  broods 
of  silk-worms  are  reared  during  the  course  of  the  year. 
In  the  Isle  of  France,  Monsieur  Chazal  reared  three 
successive  generations  between  the  months  of  December 
and  May.  There,  as  well  as  in  India,  the  mulberry  is 
an  evergreen  tree,  aifording  fresh  leaves,  and  a contin- 
ual succession  of  food  throughout  the  year. 

Some  assert,  that  the  silk-worm  of  Tuscany  is  of  that 
particular  species,  which  is  called  the  “ Tivo  Crop 
Worm'^ — or  the  ‘‘  White  Worm^\ — which,  having  pro- 
duced one  crop  of  cocoons,  the  chrysalis  perforates  its 
cocoon,  and  the  miller  lays  its  eggs,  which  produce  a 
new  generation  in  the  same  season.  Besides  the  com- 
mon silk-worm,  which  produces  but  a single  crop  in  a 
year,  they  have  also,  at  Jungepore  in  India,  the  Daccy, 
a silk-worm  which  produces  eight  crops.  I have  des- 
cribed them  both. 

I have  stated  that,  in  Tuscany,  also,  so  fine  is  their 
climate,  that  two  crops  of  silk  are  annually  produced. 
The  same  has  been  effected  by  Mrs.  Parmentier  at 
Brooklyn,  on  Long  Island.  The  first  crop  being  fed 
from  the  morns  multicauUs , morns  alba,  and  other  mul- 


132 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


berries  promiscuously,  were  of  different  colors,  some 
white,  and  some  of  an  orange  color.  But  a second  crop 
of  worms  from  the  same  cocoons,  being  fed  exclusively 
on  the  leaves  of  the  morus  inulticaulis,  finished  their 
labors  in  the  short  space  of  twenty-six  days  from  the 
commencement,  wdiich  was  about  the  thirtieth  of  July. 
This  last  circumstance  might  be,  in  part,  owing  to  the 
warmth  of  the  season.  The  cocoons  thus  produced 
were  not  only  of  larger  size  than  those  of  the  first  crop, 
but  what  is  still  more  important,  they  were  beautiful  and 
shining,  and  of  the  whiteness  of  snow. 

At  the  Fair  of  the  American  Institute  of  New  York, 
in  1833,  cocoons  were  produced  of  two  successive  crops 
of  silk.  The  first  crop  were  hatched  the  11th  of  May, 
the  second  crop  the  8th  of  July,  and  a third  crop 
might  have  been  produced.  All  being  fed  on  the  morus 
multicaulis,  they  w^ere  of  a snowy  whiteness.  In  the 
same  year,  Mr.  E.  Stanley,  of  Ogden,  N.  Y.,  produced 
two  successive  crops,  the  second  was  hatched  by  acci- 
dent, and  the  cocoons  were  fine.  In  Brattleboro’,  Vt. 
in  the  same  year,  two  successive  crops  were  produced 
from  the  common  white  mulberry.  And  in  1834,  as 
Dr.  Holmes  has  recorded,  two  crops  of  cocoons,  both 
of  them  large  and  perfect,  were  produced  in  Winthrop, 
Maine.  See  his  account  in  the  Maine  Farmer,  vol.  iii. 
Feb.  20,  1835,  published  at  Winthrop. 

In  all  these  cases,  the  second  crop  of  silk-wmrms  was 
produced  from  the  eggs  from  the  cocoons  of  the  first 
crop. 

Dr.  Millington,  of  St.  Charles,  Missouri,  has  tried  the 
experiment  with  the  most  satisfactory  success.  He  is 
an  eminently  practical,  scientific  agriculturist,  w^ho  has 
made  silk  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  his  attention 
for  several  years. 

In  his  valuable  communication  in  the  American  Far- 
mer for  January,  1829,  he  has  stated,  that  the  eggs  of 
the  same  year  hatch  but  partially,  or  do  not  hatch  so 
regularly  and  simultaneously  as  those  of  the  former  year. 
He  notes  the  date  and  the  day  the  eggs  are  produced. 


SUCCESSIVE  CROPS  OF  SILK. 


133 


on  the  papers  on  which  they  are  deposited  ; and  those 
eggs  of  a similar  age  are  brought  forward  to  hatch  at 
the  same  time,  and  then  they  usually  are  all  ready  to 
spin  together.  If  all  the  eggs  are  saved  from  the  first 
crop,  it  will  prevent  the  possibility  of  degeneracy. 
These  are  carefully  rolled  up  and  preserved  in  dry 
boxes,  and  kept  in  a dry  cool  cellar,  and  in  June  or 
July  of  the  following  year,  and  when  the  heat  of  the 
climate  or  season  requires  it,  they  are  transferred  to  a 
dry  ice  house. 

Among  the  great  advantages  of  having  silk-worms  of 
different  ages  in  the  same  apartment,  he  asserts,  “that 
the  same  room  and  shelves  will  hold  abundantly  more 
worms  at  the  same  time  without  being  crowded  ; and  a 
room  and  shelves  which  will  but  barely  accommodate 

100.000  full  grown  worms,  will  better  accommodate 

250.000  consisting  of  four  or  five  different  ages,  pro- 
vided each  age  or  parcel  are  about  equal  in  number,  and 
are  hatched  seven  or  eight  days  apart.’’  Also  it  is 
ascertained  that,  by  this  system,  much  more  can  be 
done  with  the  same  amount  of  labor,  than  by  any  other 
mode. 

I am  perfectly  aware,  that  the  excellent  Dr.  Pascalis, 
at  the  time  he  published  his  work  on  silk  at  New  York, 
in  1829,  endeavored  to  explode  the  idea  of  attempting  to 
raise  numerous  crops,  or  even  tw^o  successive  crops  of 
silk  in  a season.  He  states  some  plausible  reasons  for 
his  objections,  particularly  the  record  of  the  failure  of 
an  attempt  near  Lyons,  about  1820  ; and  also  the  failure 
of  the  attempts  at  the  Isle  of  Bourbon,  situated  beneath 
a fiery  sun,  and  within  the  burning  zone.  In  the  next 
year,  and  in  No.  2 of  his  valuable  work,  “ The  Silk 
Culturist,”  for  January,  1830,  Dr.  Pascalis  has  recorded 
the  successful  introduction  of  the  silk  culture  to  the 
north  of  France^  a thing  which  had  been  deemed,  at 
least,  equally  problematical  thirty  years  before.  Also, 
that  Dr.  Deslongchamps,  had  even  succeeded  in  raising 
a second  crop  of  cocoons  from  the  eggs  of  the  first. 
Dr.  Deslongchamps  was  one  of  a society  of  savans,  at 


134 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


Paris,  who  had  performed  many  experiments  to  prove 
that  this  branch  of  industry  can  be  successfully  carried 
on  through  all  the  northern  departments  of  France.  He 
also  had  ascertained,  by  experiments  at  Paris,  that  the 
cocoons  which  were  produced  by  silkworms  fed  exclu- 
sively on  Morns  multi caiilis^  were  even  rather  heavier 
than  other  cocoons.  The  more  complete  and  effectual 
conversion  of  Dr.  Pascalis  to  the  system,  does  not  ap- 
pear so  fully  until  afterwards,  when  speaking  of  the  M. 
multicaulis,  which  he  had  received  from  France,  he 
avers,  that,  after  the  discovery  of  this  plant,  a doubt 
no  longer  exists,  that  two  crops  of  silks  may  be  produced 
in  a single  season.” 


SECTION  XLIII. 

MODERN  SYSTEM  OF  COUNT  DANDOLO,  OF  ITALY, 
AND  OF  FRANCE. 

The  specimen  house  of  Mons.  Matthiew  Bonafoux, 
of  Piedmont,  the  disciple  of  Count  Dandolo,  though 
calculated  for  160,000,  yet  in  this  instance  it  contained 
but  80,000.  The  house  is  isolated  and  exposed  on  all 
sides.  It  is  by  the  side  of  a brook.  It  is  twenty  feet 
square  in  the  clear,  of  course  the  same  in  height. 
Around  the  four  walls,  at  ten  feet  from  the  floor,  there 
runs  a frame  gallery,  which  facilitates  the  attendance  of 
the  nursery  in  all  its  parts.  There  are  five  windows 
and  thirteen  ventilators  through  the  walls,  so  disposed 
as  to  admit  fresh  air  on  all  sides.  These  last  are  a foot 
square,  more  or  less,  and  furnished  with  slides ; and 
seven  ventilators  in  the  roof  to  open  with  cords.  There 
are  two  stoves  in  opposite  angles,  each  with  an  air 
chamber  for  heated  air;  also  a fireplace  in  the  side 
with  a broad  hearth,  for  f^es  of  light  blaze,  or  flame 
fires.  There  are  forty  hurdles,  each  fifteen  feet  long 
and  three  feet  wide,  sufficient  for  four  ounces.  Oppo- 


MODERN  SYSTEM,  &C. 


135 


site  the  principal  door  is  a small  bouse  in  two  apart- 
ments, one  of  which  is  for  the  attendants,  and  the  other 
for  preserving  the  implements,  and  also  used  as  a hot 
house  for  hatching  the  eggs. 

There  are  various  implements  and  furniture  which  I 
shall  not  describe.  A Hygrometer  for  ascertaining  the 
moisture;  but  a saucer  with  some  half  pounded  salt 
will  shew  the  amount  of  moisture.  Excess  of  moisture 
is  rectified  by  the  stoves,  or  by  flame  fires.  The  Ther- 
mometer regulates  the  heat  within,  which  in  the  begin- 
ning is  75^  but  is  lowered  gradually  to  63'^  in  the  last 
days,  though  the  weather  is  constantly  growing  warmer. 
Also  a Fumitory y or  large  bottle  containing  seven 
ounces  of  sea  salt,  three  ounces  pulverized  manganese, 
and  two  ounces  of  water  ; a large  spoonful  of  oil  of 
vitriol  being  added  causes  an  effervescence,  which  neu- 
tralizes the  bad  smell,  or  miasma. 

The  silkworm,  according  to  the  diary,  passed  through 
the  five  stages  in  forty  days.  I have  elsewhere  given 
an  abstract  from  one  of  M.  Bonafoux’s  diaries.  The 
80,000  silkworms  consumed  2887  pounds  6 ounces  of 
leaves,  besides  a certain  quantity  of  foliage,  given  in 
intermediate  meals,  not  herein  included.  In  the  last 
stages,  the  leaves  were  given  whole.  The  space  occu- 
pied in  the  last  stage,  is  stated  in  the  diary  at  607 
square  feet,  but  in  the  recapitulation,  it  is  put  down  at 
3 by  345  feet,  which  would  be  something  more,  or  equal 
to  the  space  in  the  clear  of  twenty-three  hurdles.  Total 
weight  of  cocoons,  304  pounds  8 ounces,  or  16  to  the 
ounce;  all  firm,  well  nourished,  sizeable,  of  a fine  straw 
color.  One  pound  of  cocoons  has  required  nine  pounds 
of  chopped  mulberry  leaves. 

Let  it  be  again  remarked,  that  this  house  stands  alone, 
exposed  on  all  its  sides  to  the  four  winds,  and  with  the 
ample  space  above,  it  might  well  contain  double  the 
number  usually  allotted  in  the  same  area,  in  buildings 
covering  a wide  space,  or  in  situations  confined  and 
secluded. 


136 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


Excess  of  moisture,  being  rectified  by  flame  fires, 
which  are  sometimes  kindled  four  times  a day.  Dr. 
Pascalis,  an  eminently  scientific  gentleman,  has  by  elec- 
tricity inspired  the  silkworms  to  hasten  their  labors. 
By  insulating  the  hurdles,  and  by  the  aid  of  the  electric 
machine  and  jar,  he  has  succeeded  in  bringing  their 
labor  to  a close  in  twenty-seven  days.  He  states  that  he 
is  willing,  though  it  divides  the  honor  of  discovery,  to 
appeal  to  the  celebrated  Abbe  Boissier  de  Sauvages, 
who  wrote  seventy  years  ago.  Sauvages  had  expressed  his 
belief  that  the  finely  pointed  appendage  or  process  pro- 
ceeding from  the  last  ring  of  the  silkworm,  was  a mys- 
terious organ,  the  use  of  which  could  not  be  defined, 
unless  it  was  an  electrical  point  or  tractor.  He  proposes 
to  correct  the  unwholesome  condition  of  a damp  at- 
mosphere by  fires,  which  will  diffuse  di  dry  heat:  adding, 
‘‘  That  temperature  is  at  all  times  best  fur  nurseries,  in 
which  the  air  is  the  most  electrified,  and  electrical  ex- 
periments are  the  most  successful.’’  Rosier,  in  the 
Cours  Complet  D' Agriculture,  had  recommended  the 
use  of  metallic  conductors  more  than  thirty  years  ago; 
having  himself  proved  their  efhcacy.  He  had  found 
that  the  silkworms  which  were  contained  on  shelves 
which  were  connected  with  a cistern  of  water  by  thin 
iron  wires  were  decidedly  more  healthy  and  active  than 
those  on  other  shelves  which  w^ere  not  thus  provided 
with  conductors. 

Count  Dandolo  rectifies  the  dampness  of  the  air  “by 
burning,  in  one  or  two  chimneys,  shavings  or  straw,  or 
any  small  dry  brushwood,  because  the  external  air  there- 
by attracted,  will  restore  and  comfort  the  languishing 
worms ; and  this  renewed  air  by  no  means  can  increase 
the  necessary  or  internal  temperature.  Another  reason 
why  blazing  fires  are  to  be  preferred,  is  the  quantity  of 
light  disengaged  from  dry  combustibles  ; it  is  surprising 
how  useful  this  reviving  light  proves  to  the  insects,  and 
how  much  it  contributes  t<^  their  health  and  growth.” 
In  more  modern  times,  no  fumitory  is  used, — chloride, 


PRODUCTION  OF  SILK. 


137 


simple  chloride  of  lime,  being  alone  sufficient  to  purify 
the  atmosphere.  Open  fire  places  are  now  disapproved 
of  in  France,  other  systems  being  adopted. 


SECTION  XLIV. 

PRODUCTION  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  SILK  IN 
DIFFERENT  COUNTRIES. 

China,  throughout  its  whole  extent,  has  been  famous 
for  its  silk  from  a very  remote  antiquity.  It  was  there 
also  that  sugar  was  first  produced  in  perfection  at  a very 
ancient  date.  Here,  and  in  its  own  native  forests,  was 
first  discovered  the  silk-worm,  whose  wonderful  works 
were  first  rendered  useful  to  man  by  the  labors  of  em- 
presses and  queens.  Here  during  a period  of  more  than 
3000  years,  its  cultivation  and  education  became  the 
lasting  resource  of  wealth  to  the  empire,  and  the  favor- 
ite pursuit  of  man,  when  in  the  year  877,  a monster 
appeared  in  China,  and  Baichu,  a rebel,  made  himself 
master  of  the  greater  part  of  the  empire.  At  Canfu,  a 
great  city  and  port,  and  the  resort  of  the  merchant  from 
Arabia  and  India,  he  wantonly  murdered  all  the  inhab- 
itants, including  120,000  foreign  merchants.  These 
consisted  of  Mahomedans,  Jews,  Christians,  Persees; 
and  not  content  with  the  destruction  of  the  human 
species,  this  worse  than  barbarian  extended  his  cruelty 
to  those  insects  whose  chief  care  had  become  the  favor- 
ite pursuit  of  man,  by  devoting  to  indiscriminate  destruc- 
tion every  tree  of  his  empire  by  which  the  silk-worm 
was  nourished.  Thus  was  utter  destruction  brought 
upon  the  silk  trade,  during  his  reign.  Canfu  and  the 
empire  recovered  not  from  the  calamities  inflicted  by 
this  man,  until  938,  a period  of  sixty  years. 


138 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


The  celebrated  Marco  Polo,  who  travelled  to  the  east 
of  Asia,  near  700  years  since,  speaks  of  the  whole 
country  of  China  being  filled  with  great,  rich,  and 
crowded  cities,  thronged  with  manufactures  of  silk  and 
other  merchandize.”  He  has  stated,  in  describing 
Cambalu,  the  royal  city  of  China,  that  “ no  fewer  than 
1000  carriages  and  packhorses,  loaded  with  raw  silk, 
make  their  daily  entry  into  the  city  ; and  silk  of  various 
textures  are  manufactured  to  an  immense  amount.” 
Du  Halde,  also,  has  stated,  that  although  every  year 
the  nations,  both  of  Asia  and  of  Europe,  draw  from  the 
superabundance  of  its  produce,  ships  and  caravans,  laden 
with  vast  quantities  both  of  wrought  and  of  unwrought 
silk,  yet  still  the  quantity  of  plain  silks,  and  those 
wrought  with  gold  and  silver,  which  remain  for  con- 
sumption throughout  the  empire  are  to  an  incredible 
amount.  To  this,  also,  may  be  added  all  the  wrought 
and  unwrought  silks  in  immense  quantities,  which  the 
provinces  of  China  pay  as  tribute  to  the  emperor. 

In  modern  times,  silk  is  produced  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Nankin,  lat.  32^,  32^,  even  in  greater  abundance  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  empire ; but  the  most  southern 
parts  are  deemed  unfavorable  to  its  growth.  That 
country,  in  all  its  various  latitudes,  possesses  a climate 
very  nearly  resembling  our  own,  it  being,  like  ours, 
bounded  and  controlled  by  an  eastern  ocean. 

One  principal  merit  of  China  silk  is  its  brilliant 
whiteness.  Some  suppose  that  this  is  owing  to  some 
particular  process  which  it  undergoes,  which  is  known 
only  to  the  people  of  that  country. 

American  merchants  are  accustomed  to  sending 
French  patterns  to  China,  which  are  there  imitated  to 
perfection,  except  being  one-fifth  lighter,  and  far  cheap- 
er than  the  fabrics  of  the  French. 

The  quantities  of  raw  silk  which  are  produced  in  the 
territories  of  the  East  India  Company,  are  greatly  in- 
creased since  1766;  and  th^  Company  now  own  eight 
filatures  or  factories  in  Bengal — each  filature,  according 


PRODUCTION  OF  SILK.  Vi9 

to  its  size,  employing  from  3,000  to  10,000  people.  But 
if  to  these  vve  add  the  number  employed  in  the  mulberry 
plantations,  and  in  feeding  the  silk-worms  which  are 
connected  with  each  each  establishment,  they  will  amount 
to  from  10  to  40,000  men,  women  and  children,  to  each 
filature. 

To  Bengal,  filatures  and  machinery  and  suitable  per- 
sons were  sent  out  in  1772,  since  which  time  the  quality 
of  the  silk  has  progressively  improved,  and  the  quantity 
increased.  Bengal  silk  is  called  by  two  names,  country 
wound,  or  that  which  is  reeled  in  the  rude  Indian  man- 
ner, filature,  or  that  which  is  reeled  by  the  most  ap- 
proved modes  of  Europe.  Again  there  are  the  distinc-- 
lions  in  the  fineness  of  the  thread  ; also  between  the 
fineness  of  the  silk  of  the  filatures  of  different  districts  : 
those  of  Gonatea  and  Comercolly  being  the  finest,  and 
next  to  these  are  the  filatures  of  Radnagore  and  Cassim- 
bazar.  Most  of  the  raw  silk  of  these  filatures,  is  used 
in  the  manufactories  of  England.  From  1770  to  1789, 
the  silk-worms  have  been  successfully  introduced  from 
Bengal  to  Madras,  and  in  1792  they  had  become  spread 
in  an  extent  of  600  miles  of  the  coast. 

In  India  the  weaver  chooses  his  position  beneath  a 
tree,  that  its  foliage  may  protect  him  from  the  rays  of 
a scorching  sun,  and  the  cords  which  sustain  his  har- 
ness are  attached  to  its  branches.  The  loom  is  of  bam- 
boo of  the  rudest  construction.  The  shuttle  is  in  form 
of  a netting  needle,  and  longer  than  the  breadth  of  the 
web  ; and  with  this  instead  of  a baton,  he  beats  up  the 
thread  of  the  woof.  Yet  in  this  rude  mode  he  is  able 
to  prepare  a fabric  which  may  vie  in  beauty  with  those 
of  Italy. 

The  Persians  for  centuries  engrossed  the  whole  trade 
between  Rome  and  China  to  enormous  profit.  Their 
caravans  traversed  the  vast  extent  of  Asia,  laden  with 
rich  merchandize,  from  the  Chinese  ocean  to  the  coast 
of  Syria;  the  raw  silk  for  the  extensive  manufactures 
of  Persia,  Tyre  and  Berytus  being  wholly  derived  from 


140 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


this  source.  The  silk  of  Persia  is  chiefly  produced  in 
the  provinces  of  Ghilan  and  Shirvan  and  the  city  of 
Scharnachia  situated  near  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  cara- 
vans of  Persia  travel  to  Aleppo,  to  Smyrna,  to  Scande- 
roon  or  Alexandria,  and  to  Constantinople. 

The  exports  of  raw  silk  from  Turkey,  are  principally 
from  the  sea-ports  of  Aleppo,  of  Tripoli,  of  Sayda  and 
Smyrna. 

In  Russia,  Peter  the  Great  caused  the  mulberry  plan- 
tations to  be  formed  in  many  parts  of  his  dominions, 
and  these  have  flourished  as  far  north  as  lat.  54  deg. 
Catharine  also  pursuing  the  same  career,  establishments 
are  now  in  successful  operation  in  Russia  for  manufac- 
turing silk  from  native  production,  and  expectations  are 
entertained  that  Russia  will  not  much  longer  be  depend- 
ent on  Persia  for  their  supplies  of  this  material.  Man- 
ufactories of  silk  are  now  established  at  Novogorod, 
which  in  many  fabrics  may  vie  with  those  of  France. 

Even  in  the  inhospitable  climate  of  Sweden,  the  suc- 
cessful experiment  has  begun  ; and  by  late  accounts,  ihe 
culture  of  the  mulberry  tree  is  extending  itself  in  the 
provinces,  and  the  most  important  modes  of  rearing  the 
silk-worm  have,  since  the  year  1823,  been  generally 
promulgated : “ and  the  silk  so  produced  in  Sweden, 
has  confirmed,  in  the  amplest  manner,  the  remark  for- 
merly made  on  the  superior  fineness  and  solidity  of  silk 
grown  in  the  north,  compared  with  that  of  more  tem- 
perate climates,  a fact  which  has  received  the  unanimous 
sanction  of  the  members  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Com- 
merce, as  well  as  of  many  silk  manufacturers.  It  sup- 
ports the  ordinary  preparation  and  dye  equally  with  the 
best  Indian  silk,  possessing  the  same  brilliancy  and  soft- 
ness. Such  are  the  results  of  the  experiments  instituted 
during  the  year  1823  at  Stockholm.  The  silk  also 
which  has  been  grown  for  the  last  two  years  in  Bavaria, 
is  superior  to  that  produced  in  Italy.’' 

In  the  island  of  Sicily,  s^lks  are  the  greatest  source 
of  the  riches  of  the  country,  next  to  the  production  of 


PRODUCTION  OF  SILK. 


141 


corn,  for  which  they  have  long  been  famous.  Their 
principal  factories  are  at  Palermo,  at  Catania  and  Mes- 
sina. 

Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  after  he  had  finished  his  cru- 
sades to  the  Holy  Land,  invaded  Greece  in  1146.  Here 
he  made  captive  and  stole  many  of  the  weavers  and 
manufacturers.  These  he  carried  and  settled  at  Paler- 
mo. These  first  taught  the  Sicilians  to  raise  and  man- 
ufacture silk.  Thus  the  silks  of  Sicily  in  twenty  years 
became  very  famous,  being  adorned  with  various  colors 
and  figures,  and  being  interwoven  with  gold  and  embel- 
lished with  pearls. 

Italy  has  for  many  centuries  been  famous  for  its  silk 
manufactures  and  its  culture.  The  silk  reel  which  has 
served  as  the  foundation  or  model  for  others  now  in  use, 
was  first  invented  and  used  in  Piedmont.  And  till  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  century,  Bologna  was  the  only 
city  in  Italy,  or  indeed  in  any  other  country,  which  pos- 
sessed throwing  mills,  or  the  suitable  machinery  for 
twisting  and  preparing  the  silken  fibres  for  the  weaver. 

Such  is  the  great  extent  of  the  culture  of  silk  through- 
out Italy,  that  according  to  Count  Dandolo,  two-thirds 
of  all  the  exports  from  that  country  consist  of  raw  silk 
or  its  manufactures.  This  nobleman  examined  all  the 
systems  and  modes  of  treatment  of  the  siJk-worm,  with 
scientific  research  and  diligent  care ; and  not  content 
with  disseminating  widely  by  his  writings  the  practical 
information  he  had  by  long  experience  acquired,  he  in- 
vited the  great  proprietors,  his  countrymen,  to  send  pu- 
pils to  be  instructed  by  him,  that  thus  they  might  ob- 
tain practical  instruction  on  his  modes  of  treatment. 

Soon  after  the  publication  of  the  celebrated  treatise 
of  Count  Dandolo,  extensive  establishments  were  formed 
in  Lombardy  on  the  principles  and  plan  which  he  had 
recommended.  These  were  called  Dandolieres,  as  a 
testimony  of  honor  and  respect  to  disinterested  philan- 
thropy. 

In  Switzerland  the  extraordinary  progress  of  the  silk 


142 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


manufactures,  during  a very  recent  period,  has  been 
such  as  even  to  cause  an  alarm  to  the  manufacturers  of 
France.  Such  has  been  their  success,  that  now  they 
even  annoy  by  their  rivalry  the  French  in  the  great  mar- 
kets of  Frankfort  and  Leipsic ; and  such  their  encour- 
agement, that  other  Cantons  who  were  only  before  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  fine  cottons,  are  now  trans- 
ferring their  labors  to  silk. 

When,  in  1810,  Napoleon  so  strictly  prohibited  the 
admission  of  cotton  goods  into  France,  the  inhabitants 
around  the  lake  of  Zurich  transferred  their  labors,  and 
with  signal  success,  to  the  manufacture  of  silk  goods. 
And  when  with  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  the  de- 
testable persecutions  for  religion  commenced;  and  dur- 
ing 1815,  1816,  1817,  great  numbers  were  induced  to 
emigrate  from  Lyons  with  their  industry  and  skill,  which 
they  carried  to  Zurich.  Thus  reinforced,  Zurich, 
which  in  1814  contained  not  more  than  2,000  looms,  in 
the  beginning  of  1828  already  numbered  from  9,000  to 
10,000  looms,  with  extensive  factories. 

The  mulberry  tree  was  first  introduced  to  France  by 
the  French  who  followed  Charles  VIII.,  in  his  ijnvasion 
of  Italy  in  1494,  but  no  considerable  results  followed  till 
Traucat,  a common  gardener  of  Nismes,  laid  the 
foundation  of  a most  extensive  nursery  of  white  mul- 
berry trees  in  1564,  from  whence  the  whole  southern 
provinces  became  covered  with  plantations.  Henry 
IV.  not  only  bestowed  great  encouragement  and  rewards 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  tree,  and  establishing 
nurseries,  but  he  naturalized  the  culture  as  far  north  as 
Orleans,  and  manufactures  of  silk  were  now  for  the  first 
time  established  at  Paris,  and  soon  became  general 
throughout  France. 

Even  titles  of  nobility  were  offered  and  conferred  by 
this  monarch  on  the  first  manufacturers,  on  condition 
they  should  sustain  them  during  twelve  years.  He  also 
planted  the  mulberry  trees  near  Paris,  and  introduced 
the  silk-worms  at  the  Tuilleriers,  and  at  Fontainbleau, 
where  they  appear  to  have  succeeded  well. 


PRODUCTION  OF  SILK. 


143 


It  is  recorded  of  Colbert,  the  minister  of  Louis  XIV, 
that,  in  his  great  zeal  to  increase  the  production  of  silk, 
not  content  merely  with  giving  away  the  trees  from  the 
nurseries  of  the  Royal  Gardens,  he  even  caused  them 
to  be  transplanted  at  the  expense  of  the  government. 
But  the  consequence  of  this  over  degree  of  liberality 
was  the  defeat  of  its  own  object ; and  the  trees  thus 
easily  obtained,  were  either  neglected  or  wilfully  des- 
troyed by  the  peasantry  ; and  a new  plan  was  adopted, 
the  wisest  and  most  effectual  which  had  ever  been  de- 
vised. Rewards  were  now  offered  of  three  livres  to 
the  cultivator  of  every  mulberry  tree  which  should  be 
found  in  a thrifty  and  flourishing  state  three  years  after 
being  transplanted.  Soon  the  salutary  effects  of  this 
encouragement  appeared,  and  Provence,  Languedoc, 
Dauphine,  Vivarais,  Lyonnois,  Gascony,  and  Saintonge 
became  speedily  covered  with  the  trees  of  the  mulberry. 

The  silk  district  of  France  lies  on  two  sides  of  the 
Rhone,  and  includes  thirteen  departments  of  the  king- 
dom, [Lyons  being  the  northernmost  point.]  Although, 
during  the  last  twenty-five  years,  the  quantity  of  silk 
produced  in  France  has  exceedingly  augmented,  yet 
they  still  annually  import  to  the  amount  of  43,000,000 
francs,  for  the  supply  of  their  manufactures,  from  for- 
eign sources. 

The  culture  and  manufacture  of  silk  have  stood 
alone,  with  little  protection  ; they  have  flourished  in 
France  by  neglect,  because  they  were  suited  to  the 
taste  of  the  nation.  The  curious  fabrics,  and  patterns  so 
unsurpassed,  are  the  result  of  highly  cultivated  taste. 
Their  first  and  best  models  are  the  refined  imitation^  of 
nature.  This  branch  of  industry,  though  least  of  all 
protected,  has,  from  this  very  cause  alone,  withstood 
unmoved  the  utter  subversion  of  all  things  else. 

Lyons  is  not  only  the  greatest  silk  manufacturing  city 
of  France.,  but  the  greatest  in  the*  world,  for  the  most 
elegant  fabrics  of  figured  silks,  the  productions  of  taste 
and  fancy.  In  1812,  the  city  of  Lyons  employed  10,720 


144 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


looms,  and  15,506  workmen,  but  in  1824  the  silk  looms 
amounted  to  24,000,  and  the  number  of  workmen  to 
36,000,  and  in  1825,  the  number  of  factories  is  stated 
at  8526,  and  the  number  of  looms  within  the  city, 
20,101.  The  cause  of  the  apparent  diminution  was  the 
dispersion  of  the  weavers  to  the  villages  in  the  circle  of 
the  department,  where  labor,  and  consequently  provi- 
sions, were  cheaper  than  at  Lyons. 

The  following  account  of  the  Jacquard-loom  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  work  of  Dr.  Ure,  on  the  “ Philosophy 
of  Manufactures.^^ 

“ The  history  of  the  introduction  of  the  Jacquard 
loom  is  a most  instructive  lesson  on  the  advantage  of 
free  intercourse  and  rivalship  between  different  coun- 
tries. The  inventor  of  that  beautiful  mechanism  was 
originally  an  obscure  straw-hat  manufacturer,  who  had 
never  turned  his  mind  to  automatic  mechanics,  till  he 
had  an  opportunity,  by  the  peace  of  Amiens,  of  seeing  in 
an  English  newspaper  the  offer  of  a reward  by  our  Soci- 
ety of  Arts,  to  any  man  who  should  weave  a net  by  ma- 
chinery. He  forthwith  roused  his  dormant  faculties, 
and  produced  a net  by  mechanism  ; but  not  finding  the 
means  of  encouragement  in  the  state  of  his  country,  he 
threw  it  aside  for  some  time,  and  eventually  gave  it  to  a 
friend,  as  a matter  of  little  moment.  The  net,  how- 
ever, got  by  some  means  into  the  hands  of  the  public 
authorities,  and  was  sent  to  Paris.  After  a considera- 
ble period,  when  Jacquard  had  ceased  to  think  of  his 
invention,  the  Prefect  of  the  Department  sent  for  him, 
and  said,  ‘‘  You  have  directed  your  attention  to  the  mak- 
ing of  net  machinery.’’  He  did  not  immediately  recol- 
lect it,  but  the  net  being  produced,  recalled  every  thing 
to  his  mind.  On  being  desired  by  the  Prefect  to  make 
the  machine  which  had  led  to  that  result,  Jacquard 
asked  three  weeks’  time  for  the  purpose.  He  then  re- 
turned with  it,  and  requested  the  Prefect  to  strike  with 
his  foot  on  a part  of  the  machine,  whereby  a mesh  was 
added  to  the  net. 


PRODUCTION  OF  SILK. 


145 


Oil  its  being  sent  to  Paris,  an  order  was  issued  for  the 
arrest  of  its  constructor,  by  Napoleon,  in  his  usual  sud- 
den and  arbitrary  way.  He  was  placed  immediately  in 
charge  of  a gendarme,  and  was  not  allowed  to  go  to  his 
house  to  provide  himself  with  necessaries  for  his  jour- 
ney. Arrived  in  the  metropolis,  he  was  placed  in  the 
Conservatoire  des  Arts,  and  required  to  make  the  ma- 
chine there  in  the  presence  of  inspectors  ; an  order  with 
which  he  accordingly  complied.  On  his  being  present- 
ed to  Bonaparte  and  Carnot,  the  former  addressed  him 
with  an  air  of  incredulity,  in  the  following  coarse  lan- 
guage : — Are  you  the  man  who  pretends  to  do 
what  God  Almighty  cannot  do, — to  tie  a knot  in  a 
stretched  string?”  He  then  produced  the  machine, 
and  exhibited  its  mode  of  operation.  He  was  afterwards 
called  upon  to  examine  a loom  on  which  from  20,000 
to  30,000  francs  had  been  expended  for  making  fab- 
rics for  Bonaparte’s  use.  He  undertook  to  do,  by  a 
simple  mechanism,  what  had  in  vain  been  attempted  by 
a very  complicated  one  : and  taking  as  his  pattern  a 
model  machine  of  Vaucanson,  he  produced  the  famous 
Jacquard  loom.  He  returned  to  his  native  town,  reward- 
ed with  a pension  of  a thousand  crowns,  but  experi- 
enced the  utmost  difficulties  to  introduce  his  machine 
among  the  silk  weavers,  and  was  three  times  in  danger 
of  being  assassinated.  The  Conseil  desPrud’  Hommes, 
who  are  the  official  conservators  of  the  trade  of  Lyons, 
broke  up  his  loom  in  the  public  place,  sold  the  iron  and 
wood  for  old  materials,  and  denounced  him  as  an  object  of 
universal  hatred  and  ignominy.  Nor  was  it  till  the  F rench 
people  were  beginning  to  feel  the  force  of  foreign  com- 
petition, that  they  had  recourse  to  this  admirable  aid  of 
their  countryman  ; since  which  time  they  have  found  it 
to  be  the  only  real  protection  and  prop  of  their  trade.” 

In  the  invention  and  forrhation  of  the  most  elegant 
figured  patterns,  as  in  most  other  branches  of  the  fine 
arts,  the  taste  of  the  French  is  superior  to  that  of  the 
whole  world ; their  patterns  being  the  imitations  of 


146 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


nature  itself.  Even  every  common  weaver  makes  it  his 
study  to  produce  them ; the  botanist  and  the  florist 
forms  his  patterns  by  an  imitation  of  the  various  combi- 
nations which  he  is  enabled  to  produce  from  the  flowers 
which  he  gathers  in  the  gardens  or  fields.  To  this  it 
must  be  added,  that,  in  every  considerable  establish- 
ment, there  are  one  or  more  artists  or  painters,  which 
are  selected  from  the  pupils  of  the  schools  which  are 
expressly  established  at  Lyons  or  other  places  for  their 
instruction.  These  have  a fixed  salary,  varying  from 

1.000  francs  to  2,000  francs  per  annum.  These  draw- 
ings are  transferred  to  cards  or  cartoons — and  these 
cartoons  are  punched  with  holes  to  receive  certain  wires, 
and  the  card  pattern,  being  completed,  is  adjusted  to 
the  Jacquard  loom.  The  movements  of  the  machine 
are  self-adjusted,  and  regulated  by  these  pattern  cards, 
and  the  most  perfect  and  beautiful  figured  silks  are 
woven  without  the  aid  of  any  particular  skill,  and  by 
any  common  weaver.  For  shawls  of  great  beauty  and 
variety,  the  expense  of  new  mounting  a pattern  for  the 
Jacquard  loom,  may  amount  to  1,000  francs,  or  about 
$184. 

In  England,  acording  to  Dr.  Ure,  from  100  to  4,000 
cards  may  be  required  for  a pattern  in  a Jacquard 
loom.  With  one  containing  816  cards,  the  cost  of  the 
draft,  writing  and  stamping,  will  amount  to  £10  or 
$44  44,  and  the  annual  expense  for  change  of  patterns 
for  the  Jacquard  looms,  to  the  English  manufacturer,  is 
stated  to  be  about  £}2  each,  or  $53  33.  The  total 
cost  of  a Jacquard  loom  in  England,  varies  from  .£15 
to  c£30,  or  from  $66  66  to  $133  33. 

According  to  a very  late  report  on  the  silk  manufac- 
tures of  France,  they  were  never  in  a more  flourishing 
state  than  at  present.  France  has  now  in  full  operation 

70.000  looms  for  silk  ; each  of  these  looms  weave  annu- 
ally sixty  pounds  of  silk  on  the  average  of  the  whole. 


PRODUCTION  OF  SILK. 


147 


Tiie  consamplion  and  demand  for  ribbons  are  stated  to 
be  enormous.  The  splendid  Cashmere  shawls  are  now 
so  successfully  imitated  in  France,  that  these  imitations 
command  a price  in  proportion  to  their  quality,  of  from 
a dollar  and  a third,  to  four  hundred  and  forty-four  dol- 
lars each. 

From  the  report  of  the  investigations  on  the  Silk  and 
Wine  trade  of  France,  which  were  lately  made  by  Dr. 
Bowring  to  the  British  parliament,  it  appears,  that  the 
total  amount  of  silk  manufactures  exported  from  France 
was  to  the  value  of  $25,000,000  in  1832.  ‘‘Of this 
amount,  nearly  one  half  is  of  plain  silks,  of  which  the 
United  States  take  one  third,  and  in  some  years  nearly 
one  half  of  the  whole  export/’  Of  figured  silks,  and 
other  silk  articles,  the  United  States  are  also  the  largest 
purchasers ; and  it  has  been  deemed  an  assertion  per- 
fectly safe  on  the  side  of  truth,  that  France  exports 
annually  to  the  United  States  alone,  ten  millions  of  dol- 
lars worth  of  silk.  Much  also  is  imported  into  America 
from  Switzerland. 

England,  from  its  variable  climate,  and  its  humid  and 
clouded  atmosphere,  is  found  unsuited  to  the  growth  of 
silk,  as  has  been  proved  in  their  successive  attempts  in 
1623,  1629,  1718,  and  again  in  England  and  Ireland  in 
1823,  all  which  have  failed  from  the  above  causes.  But 
latterly  this  same  Company  have  commenced  with  the 
pomise  of  great  success  at  Malta.  The  cultivation  of 
cotton,  which  had  till  very  lately  been  pursued  at  Malta, 
having  been  checked  by  the  increasing  production  of 
Eg)pt,  the  numerous  population  of  the  island  were  re- 
duced to  distress.  This  new  enterprise  was  hailed  with 
enthusiasm  by  the  Maltese,  as  a new  and  profitable 
source  of  industry.  The  growth  of  the  mulberry  is 
more  rapid  at  Malta  by  full  one-third  part  than  it  is  in 
Italy.  Latterly,  also,  the  English  have  introduced  the 


148 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


silk-worms  to  St.  Helena.  I have  before  alluded  to  its 
introduction  by  the  English  to  the  Island  of  Mauritius 
in  1815,  and  that  Mr.  Chazal  in  1817  had  produced  200 
pounds  of  raw  silk,  for  which  he  received  from  the  So- 
ciety for  the  encouragement  of  arts,  their  large  gold 
medal,  which  was  offered  for  the  growth  of  silk  in  the 
British  dominions.  The  silk  which  was  grown  in  that 
hot  climate,  and  which  was  carefully  examined  by  some 
of  the  most  distinguished  brokers  in  London,  was  stated 
to  be  of  tolerable  good  quality.^’ 

The  manufactures  of  England,  according  to  Dr.  Ure, 
were  never  in  a more  flourishing  state  than  at  the  pre- 
sent day.  England  now  imports  more  than  2000  tons 
of  raw  silk  for  the  supply  of  its  manufactures.  More 
than  one-third  of  this  comes  from  Bengal — six  hundred 
thousand  pounds  from  China,  half  as  much  from  Tur- 
key, Aleppo,  Tripoli,  Sayda,  Smyrna : the  rest  chiefly 
from  Italy. 

The  greatest  part  of  the  Italian  raw  silk,  which  the 
English  manufacturers  require,  is  received  from  the 
French,  by  whom  it  is  smuggled  from  Italy  through  the 
territory  of  France,  it  being  the  absurd  policy  of  some 
of  the  Italian  States  to  prohibit  the  exportation  of  raw 
silk.  A less  proportion  is  also  imported  direct  from  Italy 
from  the  states  of  Leghorn,  Genoa  and  Nice. 

The  complete  establishment  of  the  silk  manufactures 
in  England  took  place  in  1685,  on  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes,  w^hen  the  Protestants  or  Hugonots  were 
driven  by  religious  persecution  from  France.  These 
settled  in  England,  where  they  commenced  and  estab- 
lished the  silk  manufacture.  Yet  during  the  years,  and 
especially  the  period  from  1773  to  1824,  and  while  the 
silk  trade  was  burthened  with  restrictions  and  heavy 
imposts  and  prohibitions  on  the  fabrics  of  other  nations, 
the  manufactures  of  the  English  languished  : nursed  and 
nourished  by  monopoly,  and  relying  not  on  itself  for 
support,  it  became  enervated.v^  The  smuggler,  more 
than  any  other  class,  became  enriched  by  the  system, 


PRODUCTION  OF  SILK. 


149 


until,  in  1826,  Mr.  Huskisson,  the  wise  and  sagacious 
minister,  demolished  the  barriers  which  were  raised  for 
its  protection,  and  at  once  dissolved  the  charm.  The 
duties  on  the  raw  silk,  inasmuch  as  it  could  never  be 
produced  in  England,  were  abolished,  and  the  duties  on 
imports  of  manufactured  silks  were  reduced  to  30  per 
cent.  From  that  period,  the  manufactures  of  England, 
thus  left  to  rely  on  themselves,  have  acquired  new  ener- 
gy ; and  in  the  healthful  but  desperate  struggle  of  com- 
petition, it  has  wonderfully  augmented  its  strength.  And 
with  the  industry  and  talent,  and  ready  invention  of  the 
people,  and  the  introduction  of  the  Jacquard  loom  of 
France,  and  of  every  species  of  improvement  from 
abroad,  they  are  now  enabled  to  rival  in  excellence  even 
the  most  beautiful  fabrics  of  China,  of  Italy,  of  Switz- 
erland, and  of  France. 

Formerly,  the  silk  manufactures  of  England  were 
chiefly  confined  to  Spitalfields ; but  now,  in  a great 
measure,  Manchester  has  become  the  emporium.  The 
throwing-mills  of  that  place,  in  1832,  required  for  their 
movement  a power  of  steam  equal  to  342  horses.  In 
1819,  there  were  not  fifty  silk  looms  in  Manchester,  and 
now  there  are  12,000  looms,  whereof  one-third  are  for 
silk  with  admixture,  and  two-thirds  for  silk  alone.  Pow- 
er looms  for  silk  are  believed  to  be  but  little  used  in 
England ; — they  are  an  invention  of  but  a few  years, 
the  weavers  of  the  old  school  being  opposed  to  their 
introduction.  Thus  it  was  in  England  on  the  first  in- 
vention of  the  power  looms  for  cotton,  their  introduc- 
tion being  opposed  by  mobs,  and  the  wonderful  machines 
consigned  to  destruction,  and  their  authors  to  execra- 
tion. 

I have  stated  that  the  silks  left  for  consumption  in  Great 
Britain  alone,  so  late  as  1835,  amounted  to  the  enormous 
sum  of  $28,282,582  annually,  at  the  wholesale  prices, 
besides  the  whole  amount  of  all  they  exported. 


150 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


SECTION  XLV. 

CLIMATE  OF  AMERICA;  SILK  ESTABLISHMENTS,  Ae. 

The  amount  of  silk  which  is  imported  into  the  United 
States,  and  left  for  annual  copsumption,  has  at  this  day 
become  very  great.  The  fabrics  of  silk,  so  surpassing, 
will  take  the  precedence  of  others,  so  far  as  they  excel 
them  all  in  delicacy  and  in  softness,  in  eminent  beauty 
and  in  strength,  and  the  demand  and  consumption  of 
silk  will  go  on,  and  that  continually,  augmenting  more 
and  more. 

The  silk  of  America  is  found  to  contain  a fibre, 
stronger,  and  of  a quality  superior  to  that  of  almost  any 
other  country.  This  appears  to  be  a point  which  has 
been  established  by  incontrovertible  evidence.  Speci- 
mens have  been  examined  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce 
at  Lyons,  at  a very  late  date.  Other  intelligent  French- 
men, both  here  and  in  that  country,  had  before  exam- 
ined and  compared,  and  attested  to  the  truth  of  this  im- 
portant fact. 

The  causes  of  this  superiority  may  be  traced  either 
to  soil,  or  what  is  more  probable,  to  our  fine  and  serene 
climate  during  summer. 

The  climate  of  America,  on  the  side  of  the  Atlantic, 
is  more  constant  and  invariable  in  the  States  of  the 
North,  than  in  those  of  the  South.  In  those  of  the 
North,  the  destructive  vernal  frosts  are  unknown,  or  but 
of  rare  occurrence  : for  in  these  States  the  frozen  earth 
is  for  the  most  part  protected  during  winter  at  the  freez- 
ing  point  by  the  usual  covering  of  snow;  this  covering 
is  preserved  from  dissolution  by  the  piercing  cold  winds 
of  the  north.  During  our  winters  so  intensely  cold,  and 
so  fortunately  prolonged,  vegetation  slumbers,  nor 
awakes  till  the  summer  has  com^,  and  the  danger  is  past. 
During  winter,  the  silk-worms  exists  but  in  embryo,  and 


CLIMATE  OF  AMERICA. 


151 


unconscious  of  all  things ; they  have  only  to  do  with  our 
summers. 

The  temperature  of  the  air,  and  the  general  state  of 
the  atmosphere,  as  I have  elsewhere  stated,  have  a pow- 
erful effect  on  the  filature  and  the  spinning  of  silk;  both 
are  favorable  in  Piedmont.  Italy  is  renowned  for  its 
delightful  climate  and  serene  atmosphere.  I will  now 
attempt  to  shew  that  our  own  climate,  during  summer, 
is  more  favorable  to  the  silk-worm  than  that  of  Europe, 
in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one.  The  average  heat  of 
our  midsummer  months  must  be  nearly  equal  to  that  of 
Rome,  in  Italy,  and  of  Marseilles,  in  the  south  of  France  ; 
since  the  mean  of  the  greatest  heat  at  Cambridge,  which 
is  in  lat.  42  deg.  23  min.,  exceeds  that  of  Rome  by  11 
deg.,  and  that  of  Marseilles  by  8 deg.  The  mean  of  our 
greatest  summer  heat  being  97  deg.  and  seldom  a surn- 
mer  passes  that  the  thermometer  does  not  rise  to  100 
deg.  or  more. 

From  the  average  of  the  observations  which  have 
been  made  in  twenty  cities  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
I shall  compare  the  climate  of  America. 

While  the  quantity  of  rain  which  annually  falls  in  the 
twenty  cities  of  Europe  is  but  thirty  inches,  with  us  it  is 
fifty  inches  : yet  in  Europe,  while  it  rains  annually  122 
days,  we  have  but  eighty-five  or  ninety  days  of  rain ; the 
rain  with  us  descending,  not  in  slow  and  perpetual  show- 
ers, but  more  often  in  profuse  showers  and  in  torrents. 
Yet  while  in  the  tv»^enty  cities  of  Europe  the  number  of 
fair  days  or  days  of  sunshine  is  but  sixty-four  in  the  year, 
in  America  we  have  annually  130  bright  days,  or  days 
of  sunshine,  or  a double  number  which  they  have  in 
Europe.  Thus  it  evidently  appears  that  during  sum- 
mer, the  climate  of  the  finest  countries  of  Europe  can 
by  no  means  compare  with  ours — with  our  skies  so  se- 
rene, our  atmosphere  so  unclouded,  with  our  days  of 
brilliant  light  and  more  perpetual  sunshine.  During  the 
cold  days  which  may  sometimes  occur,  there  is  always 
the  easy  remedy  ; but  in  excessive  and  long  continued 


152 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


heat,  there  is  no  remedy  but  to  open  wide  every  door 
and  window.  The  sirocco  of  some  parts  of  Italy  is 
peculiarly  unfavorable,  and  at  times  utterly  destructive. 

According  to  the  letters  of  Messrs.  Spaulding  and 
another  missionary,  who  so  lately  travelled  with  their 
wives  over  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Columbia,  we  have  in  that  region  a climate  the  most 
mild,  equable  and  temperate  on  earth,  and  correspond- 
ing with  the  most  favored  countries  of  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope, of  Portugal,  and  of  Spain.  They  make  mention 
of  one  rich  farmer  near  the  mouth  of  that  river,  having 
hundreds  of  horses,  and  many  hundreds  of  cattle  and 
swine,  which  there  roam  at  large,  requiring  no  protec- 
tion, and  finding  abundance  of  pasture  at  all  seasons. 
In  his  extensive  gardens,  they  found  the  orange  and 
lemon  trees,  and  the  fig  tree,  flourishing  luxuriantly  in 
open  culture,  in  the  latitude  of  45  deg. — the  latitude  of 
Michigan  and  of  Maine ! This  vast  region  must  also 
prove  eminently  adapted  to  the  culture  of  the  mulberry 
and  of  silk.  Still  later  travellers  have  assured  us  that  a 
gap  has  recently  been  discovered  through  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  twenty  miles  in  width,  and  the  practicability 
of  constructing  a railroad  from  the  navigable  waters  of 
the  river  Missouri,  to  those  of  the  Columbia,  and 
through  the  centre  of  our  vast  national  domain,  seems 
now  established  beyond  a doubt.  Thus  will  that  de- 
lightful region,  which  promises  to  become  one  day  the 
Eden  of  our  country,  and  those  our  distant  and  lone 
settlements,  bounding  and  immediately  contiguous  as 
they  are,  to  those  of  the  aspiring  autocrat  of  Russia,  be 
brought  nigh,  even  under  the  wing  and  immediate  pro- 
tection of  our  country  and  the  great  Republic.  Such  a 
project  is  indeed  not  in  advance,  hut  only  commensurate, 
with  the  onward  march,  and  wonderful  movements  of  the 
age  in  which  we  live.  Circumstances  may,  and  will 
arise,  at  some  future,  but  not  very  distant  day,  which 
will  arrest  the  attention  of  t|ie  enlightened  patriots 
and  statesmen  of  our  country,  and  awaken  them  to  its 


CLIMATE  OF  AMERICA. 


153 


consideration,  as  to  a subject  of  vital  interest  and  im- 
portance. 

The  culture  of  silk  was  introduced  into  America  at  a 
very  early  date.  James  I.  of  England,  more  than  two 
hundred  years  ago,  not  only  sent  over  to  Virginia  the 
mulberry  trees  and  the  silk-worms,  but  he  also  composed 
a book  of  instruction  on  its  culture,  and  endeavored  by 
every  mode  to  encourage  its  growth,  as  much  as  he 
hated  and  endeavored  to  discourage  the  growth  and  use 
of  tobacco.  Aided  by  the  encouragement  thus  afford- 
ed, and  by  legislative  enactments,  the  cultivation  of  silk 
flourished  for  a time  both  there  and  in  Georgia,  even 
when  opposed  to  the  lucrative  culture  of  tobacco,  of 
rice,  and  of  indigo,  these  last  being  annual  productions, 
and  yielding  a profit  both  sudden  and  more  immediate  : 
and  a king  and  a queen,  and  of  England  too,  might 
well  be  proud  of  the  garments  of  silk  which  they  once 
wore — these  being  the  productions  of  their  own  colo- 
nial country,  even  of  America.  One  day  they  may 
wear  them  again. 

In  other  States,  too,  the  silk  culture  was  making  hope- 
ful progress;  and  at  Philadelphia,  Dr.  Franklin  had  al- 
ready established  a filature,  when  the  war  of  the  revolu- 
tion commenced. 

For  seventy  years  the  raising  of  silk  has  been  the  reg- 
ular profitable  employment  of  many  of  the  farmers  of 
Connecticut  during  the  early  part  of  the  summer. 
Theirs,  however,  seems  to  have  been  a primitive  system, 
not  altogether  perhaps  unlike  the  system  which  was 
practised  in  China  4000  years  ago.  The  common  reel, 
and  common  spinning  wheel  and  loom,  constituted  the 
chief  amount  of  the  machinery  which  was  known  to 
them,  until  very  lately;  the  silk-worms  being  fed  in 
dwelling  houses,  or  sheds,  or  barns,  no  fires  being  af- 
forded to  them  at  at  any  time,  nor  indeed  was  it  ever 
supposed  to  be  needed  by  them  in  that  favored  climate. 

The  introduction  of  the  wonderful  machines  for  spin- 
ning wool  and  cotton,  and  the  power  loom$^  which  arc 
11 


154 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


now  moved  by  water,  or  by  wonderworking  steam,  have 
put  an  end  to  these  last  branches  of  domestic  industry, 
and  cotton  having  in  consequence  almost  entirely  super- 
seded the  use  of  hemp  and  flax  in  domestic  use,  in  the 
abodes  of  our  countrymen,  the  sounds  of  the  loom,  the 
distaff,  and  the  spinning  wheel,  are  no  longer  heard. 

Even  machines  for  knitting  are  now  constructed.  I 
have  seen  them  and  witnessed  their  operations.  They 
were  lately  invented  by  a Pennsylvania  farmer  ; they 
work  to  wonderful  perfection,  and  to  immense  saving  of 
labor  and  of  time,  and  will  soon  make  an  entire  change 
in  this  remaining  branch  of  domestic  manufactures. 

The  reeling  of  silk  in  France  and  Italy,  is  performed 
almost  exclusively  by  females.  In  these  countries  there 
are  innumerable  domestic  filatures,  where  the  cocoons 
raised  by  one  or  more  families  are  reeled  by  the  wives 
and  daughters  of  the  farmers.  These  employ  from  one 
to  five  or  six  reels,  and  the  art  of  reeling  is  preserved 
in  families,  from  generation  to  generation.  There  are, 
also,  in  these  countries,  large  establishments,  or  filatures, 
which  employ  from  fifty  to  five  hundred  reels  ; these  es- 
tablishments have  a superintendent,  who  is  thoroughly 
and  practically  a perfect  master  of  the  business  in  every 
department.  Women  there  are  here,  who  work  at  the 
reeling  all  their  days  as  an  exclusive  occupation. 

At  these  large  establishments,  the  most  perfect  silk  is 
reeled,  and  that  which  commands  the  highest  price. 

At  the  establishment  of  the  Harmony  Society,  at 
Economy,  in  Pennsylvania,  on  the  Ohio  river,  silk  is 
cultivated  and  some  figured  silk  vestings  have  been  pro- 
duced, which  may  vie  with  the  most  beautiful  fabrics  of 
Europe.  The  celebrated  Mr.  Rapp,  who  is  the  pa- 
triarch of  this  establishment,  hesitates  not  to  affirm  that 
the  raising  of  silk  is  as  easy  as  the  raising  of  wheat,  and 
much  less  laborious. 

At  Lisbon,  and  at  Mansfield  in  Connecticut,  there 
are  new  manufactories  of  silk,  and  many  foreign  work- 
men are  there  employed.  ^ 


CLIMATE  OF  AMERICA. 


155 


At  Poughkeepsie  in  New  York,  a large  establish- 
ment has  recently  commenced  operations. 

At  Northampton,  a large  establishment  for  the  manu- 
facture of  silk  has  gone  into  successful  operation  under 
the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Whitmarsh. 

At  Dedham,  Mass.,  a new  manufacturing  company 
and  establishment  has  lately  been  formed,  which  has 
been  placed  under  the  superintendence  of  Jonathan 
H.  Cobb,  Esq.,  who  is  well  known  as  a gentleman  of  ex- 
perience, and  eminently  distinguished  for  his  zealous 
exertions  in  the  cause  of  American  manufactures,  and 
particularly  those  of  silk.  He  is  the  well  known  author 
of  the  ‘‘  Manual  on  the  Mulberry  Tree  and  the  Culture 
of  silk.’^  This  establishment  is  extensive,  and  manufac- 
tures sewing  silk  of  the  first  quality,  and  other  fabrics 
on  a large  scale. 

Messrs.  Montague^s  establishment  is  situated  in 
Washington  street,  in  Boston,  and  has  been  in  success- 
ful operation  for  about  four  years ; about  three  hundred 
females  being  constantly  employed.  Here  are  from  one 
hundred  and  fifty  to  tw^o  hundred  looms  for  weaving 
Tuscan  braid.  These  braids  are  formed  of  a great 
variety  of  elegant  patterns ; the  silk  constitutes  the 
warp,  but  the  filling  is  formed  chiefly  of  the  imported 
Tuscan  straw,  with  a mixture  occasionally  of  the  Ma- 
nilla grass,  which  is  the  same  material  which  is  used  in 
the  formation  of  the  grass  ropes;  this  substance  being 
of  a white  color,  and  shining  appearance,  contributes 
to  form  an  elegant  article ; with  this  is  also  occasionally 
mixed,  thin  fine  strips  of  whalebone,  of  a white  color 
and  shining. 

They  here  manufacture  eight  hundred  bonnets  a 
week,  or  from  eight  to  twelve  hundred,  of  a great  vari- 
ety of  elegant  forms  and  patterns ; all  of  which  find  a 
ready  and  profitable  sale  both  in  the  North  and  at  the 
South  and  West.  These  usually  sell  by  the  wholesale, 
from  $2  50  to  $4  each ; some,  however,  for  chil- 
dren are  sold  as  low  as  $2  each. 


J56 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


Much  gimp  is  here  manufactured,  and  used  in  the 
structure  of  bonnets.  A thread  having  been  prepared 
by  being  wound  around  and  completely  covered  with 
silk,  a coarse  cotton  cord  twenty  yards  in  length  is  next 
attached  to  a swivel,  and  the  other  end  to  a spindle. 
This  cord  is  made  to  revolve  with  astonishing  speed,  and 
the  fine  prepared  cord,  which  a workman  carries  at  a 
good  walk,  is  speedily  wound  round  it  as  a covering, 
the  whole  having  the  appearance  of  silk.  This  thread 
or  finer  cord  is  first  wound  round  with  the  silk  in  the 
same  manner.  The  simplicity  of  this  machinery,  the 
wonderful  rapidity  of  its  execution,  are  calculated  to 
strike  the  beholder  with  surprise  and  admiration. 

Here  also  is  a ribbon  loom,  which  weaves  a dozen 
ribbons  at  a time.  This  is  furnished  with  a dozen 
spring  shuttles,  which  are  put  in  motion  by  a single 
hand  at  the  same  instant  of  time. 

Here  is  also  another  loom  for  galloon,  which  weaves 
twenty  pieces  at  a time,  moving  twenty  shuttles  at  once, 
by  a single  hand. 

The  quantity  of  silk  which  is  consumed  in  this  es- 
tablishment, is  from  thirty  to  fifty  pounds  in  a week.  A 
part  of  this  silk  is  imported  direct  from  China ; and  a 
part  is  bought  in  England  at  the  London  docks,  and 
before  it  becomes  liable  to  a duty  at  that  place.  It  is 
imported  into  London  by  the  ships  from  India  and 
Qhina.  But  some  of  the  finest  silk  which  is  used  in  this 
establishment  has  been  imported  from  France,  as  I am 
informed,  at  a cost  of  $11  per  pound.  There  is  also  in 
this  establishment  a throwing  mill  for  making  organzine 
and  tram. 

Other  establishments  for  manufacturing  are  also 
arising  in  various  sections  of  the  country,  but  the  great 
and  all-important  work  which  is  now  in  successful  pro- 
gress throughout  the  country,  is  the  preliminary  enter- 
prise of  raising  the  silk. 


DUTIES  ON  SILK  AND  PROTECTIVE  LAWS.  157 


SECTION  XLVI. 

DUTIES  ON  SILK  AND  PROTECTIVE  LAWS. 

It  has  been,  at  times,  the  policy  of  the  American 
government,  to  impose  duties  on  certain  raw  materials 
for  their  production  at  home,  as  well  as  for  the  purposes 
of  revenue.  Such  has  been  the  case  with  bar  and  un- 
wrought iron,  and  wool,  indigo,  tobacco,  cotton  and 
sugar  ; this  last,  being  an  article  whose  culture  is  local, 
its  consumption  as  an  article  of  food,  and  one  of  the 
most  wholesome  sweets  in  nature,  has  become  very 
great,  and  it  is  now  considered  as  one  of  the  necessaries 
of  life.  Yet,  in  the  view  of  that  equal  encouragement 
which  is  justly  due  to  the  poor,  who  purchase  all  for 
their  consumption,  and  to  the  manufacturer,  it  will  be 
deemed  expedient  that  the  duties  on  the  raw  material 
should  be  rather  light. 

Even  on  wrought  silks,  whose  manufacture  we  all 
should  be  desirous  to  encourage,  the  duties  imposed, 
whether  for  this,  or  for  the  purposes  of  revenue,  should 
be  but  moderate.  Prohibitory  laws  will  be  but  of  little 
avail.  Competition,  though  restrained,  yet  inasmuch  as 
it  gives  new  life  and  energy,  its  vivifying  influence  must 
not  be  extinguished.  As  in  the  case  of  all  other  manu- 
factures which  are  now  so  eminently  prosperous,  we 
fear  not  the  conflict ; resolved  to  conquer,  in  the  struggle 
with  competitors,  we  shall  acquire  new  powers,  and 
wonderfully  improve  our  strength,  till  we  come  off  vic- 
torious. 

In  England  and  in  France,  where  the  silk  manufac- 
tures now  flourish  beyond  those  of  any  other  country, 
they  have,  by  experience,  found  that  a very  moderate 
duty  on  the  imports,  is  in  fact  the  only  true  policy.  This 
duty  on  manufactured  silks  in  France  at  the  present 
day  is  but  from  fifteen  to  seventeen  per  cent.  But  in 


158 


SILK  GROWER^S  GUIDE. 


England,  since  1826,  it  is  reduced  so  low  as  thirty  per 
cent. 

Manufactured  silks,  from  their  very  great  value  in 
proportion  to  their  bulk  and  weight,  like  silver  and 
gold,  will  not  bear  a heavy  duty  on  imports.  Burthen- 
some  duties  and  imposts  on  silk  may  oppress,  while  they 
&erve  but  to  enrich  the  smuggler,  who  seizes  both  the 
commerce  and  revenues  of  the  country  as  his  own,  for 
the  double  character  which  he  assumes. 

In  England,  under  the  former  system  of  monopoly 
and  exclusion,  it  had  never  been  found  possible  to  stop 
the  prosecution  of  the  contraband  trade  in  silk  goods. 
And  to  such  a perfect  system  had  this  illegal  trade  ar- 
rived, that  silk  goods,  of  any  and  every  description, 
might  be  purchased  in  France,  with  the  guarantee  of  the 
seller,  that  they  should  be  safely  delivered  at  the  very 
house  of  the  purchaser  ; the  amount  thus  put  to  hazard 
being  again  insured  at  offices  established  for  that  pur- 
pose in  France,  where  legal  policies  of  insurance  were 
to  be  obtained  against  seizure,  with  the  same  facility  as 
for  protection  against  the  dangers  of  the  seas,  or  of  fire. 
These  premiums  varied  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of 
danger  which  occurred,  from  the  vigilance  of  the  offi- 
cers of  the  revenue.  Of  the  amount  thus  smuggled  from 
the  kingdom,  no  notice  or  report  is  ever  entered  in  the 
custom  houses  of  France. 

* According  to  the  statements  of  one  of  the  presidents 
of  the  board  of  trade,  the  Right  Honorable  Vesey  Fitz- 
gerald, which  was  made  before  the  House  of  Commons 
in  1829,  and  on  the  authority  of  French  merchants,  the 
total  cost  per  cent,  on  the  value  for  smuggling  and  insur- 
ing silk  goods  from  France  into  England,  was  as  fol- 
lows : on  Gros  de  Naples  28  to  29  per  cent.;  on  Satin 
Ribbons  24  to  25  per  cent.;  on  Sarsnet  Ribbons  25  to 
26  per  cent.;  on  figured  Gauze  28  to  29  per  cent.;  on 
Blonde  12  to  13  per  cent.  The  rates  of  insurance  on 
the  latter  article  being  less,  so  much  as  its  value  is 
greater  than  that  of  other  articles  in  proportion  to  its 


ECONOMICAL  MODES  OF  HEATING. 


159 


bulk,  thus  rendering  the  work  to  be  accomplished  by 
the  smuggler  more  easy. 

The  amount  of  goods,  of  the  most  light  and  costly 
fabrics,  which  are  smuggled  into  France  by  dogs,  from 
the  boundaries  on  the  side  of  Germany  and  Italy,  is  es- 
timated at  many  millions  annually.  These  dogs  are 
strong  and  powerful,  and  trained  in  bands  for  the  pur- 
pose. Their  loads  being  adjusted  near  the  frontiers, 
they  start  by  night  in  strong  droves,  and  always  depart 
hungry  : having  passed  the  frontiers  by  routes  best 
known  to  themselves,  they  arrive  at  the  houses  especially 
prepared  for  their  reception  on  the  side  of  France,  which 
await  to  receive  them;  their  journey  being  ended,  they 
are  rewarded  for  their  labors  by  receiving  their  wonted 
and  bountiful  supplies  of  food. 


SECTION  XLVII. 

ECONOMICAL  MODES  OF  HEATING. 

One  of  the  most  economical  modes  of  applying  heat, 
either  for  warming  hot  houses  or  any  other  apartments, 
consists  in  the  immediate  application  of  steam  to  large 
masses  of  small,  round,  loose  stones,  such  stones  as 
serve  no  other  purpose  than  to  encumber  our  fields 
and  highways.  The  mass  thus  heated  will  retain  its 
warmth  for  a long  time,  giving  it  out  slowly.  Every 
person  knows  that  even  a single  brick,  if  properly 
warmed,  will  retain  its  heat  for  a long  time.  This 
mode  appears  to  have  been  first  adopted  at  Edinburgh, 
in  Scotland,  in  1807,  and  is  described  in  the  Memoirs 
of  the  Caledonian  Horticultural  Society,  and  also  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Horticultural  Society  of  London, 
and  also  in  Loudon’s  Mag.,  vol.  x.  p.  226.  The  first 
uses  to  which  this  new  system  was  applied  was  for  the 


160  SILK  GROWER^S  GUIDE. 

purpose  of  heating  hot  houses.  For  this  purpose  tim- 
bers should  be  laid  on  the  ground,  and  on  these  planks 
are  placed,  the  whole  a little  descending,  that  the  water 
of  condensation  may  drain  off.  On  all  sides  it  may  be 
enclosed  by  masonry  of  brick  or  stone,  laid  in  suitable 
mortar.  The  steam  pipe  is  laid  four  inches  above  the 
platform  ; and  over  this,  the  whole  area  is  filled  to  the 
depth  of  three  feet,  with  round  stones,  from  three  to  six 
inches  in  diameter  ; on  this  smaller  stones,  gravel,  sand^ 
and  finally  loam,  may  be  placed,  and  the  soil  and  struc- 
ture are  prepared  for  cultivation.  The  steam  pipe  may 
be  of  any  dimensions,  the  only  difference  is  that  in  a 
small  tube  or  iron  pipe,  the  steam  issues  with  greater 
force.  The  usual  dimensions  of  the  steam  pipe,  as 
named,  may  be  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  contains  per- 
forations of  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  for  the 
emission  of  the  steam.  These  holes  are  eighteen  inches 
asunder  at  the  end  next  the  boiler,  but  diminish  in  dis- 
tance, an  inch  to  every  sixteen  feet,  till  they  reach  the 
extreme  end,  which  is  closed.  The  heat  is  thus  dis- 
tributed uniformly  from  end  to  end.  Generally  the  di- 
rection of  these  holes  is  upwards,  but  some  few  are  in 
the  bottom  to  drain  off  the  condensed  water. 

The  steam  requires  to  be  admitted  from  the  boiler 
once  in  twenty-four  hours,  in  the  most  severe  weather, 
and  but  once  in  two  or  three  days  in  moderate  weather ; 
and  then  an  hour  or  two  is  sufficient,  or  as  soon  as  the 
steam  escapes  from  the  safety  valve,  as  this  shews  that 
the  stones  have  become  so  far  heated  that  they  will  no 
longer  condense  the  steam. 

This  system  requires  no  night  work.  The  mass  of 
stones  being  insulated  and  enclosed,  will  retain  its  heat 
in  proportion  to  the  dimensions  of  the  mass,  and  for  a 
longer  or  shorter  space  of  time. 

Cases  of  brick  or  stone  masonry  to  serve  as  flues, 
and  filled  with  rubble  stones,  or  pieces  of  brick,  or 
round  stones,  may  be  built  arour\d  the  sides,  or  within 
the  area  of  the  apartments,  which  may  thus  be  warmed 


PRICE  OF  LABOR. 


161 


for  any  required  purpose ; or  these  flues  may  be  en- 
closed in  others  of  wood,  leaving  space  between,  for  the 
purpose  of  wanning  by  currents  of  heated  air.  These 
reservoirs,  or  manufactories,  for  heated  air,  may  serve 
by  means  of  flues  for  warming  our  own  apartments  in 
winter.  In  early  spring,  other  flues  may  be  connected 
for  the  purpose  of  warming  the  green  house,  or  house 
for  early  vegetables,  and  during  cold  days  and  nights  in 
summer,  when  needful,  the  same  economical  apparatus 
may  warm  the  magnaneries  for  the  silk-worms,  inspiring 
them  with  new  life. 

In  some  private  families  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  as 
well  as  in  some  large  public  establishments,  almost  the 
whole  process  of  cooking  is  performed  by  steam,  and 
in  vessels  remote  from  the  boiler,  with  important  saving 
of  time,  and  of  labor. 


SECTION  XLVIII. 

PRICE  OF  LABOR,  POWER  OF  AUTOMATA  OR 
MACHINERY. 

At  page  120,  I have  shown  on  high  authority,  and 
endeavored  to  demonstrate  by  conclusive  evidence,  and 
many  important  facts,  that  in  those  countries  where  la- 
bor is  dearest,  more  ingenuity,  more  talent,  skill  and 
industry  are  brought  into  action,  and  that  those  coun- 
tries are  thus  enabled,  almost  invariably,  to  undersell 
other  nations  where  labor  is  cheap.  Thus,  in  ships  and 
in  navigation,  who  can  compete  with  the  free  maritime 
states  of  America,  and  especially  those  of  New  Eng- 
land? Do  they  not  navigate  their  ships  cheaper  and  with 
greater  economy  than  any  other  nation,  in  every  sea? — 
and  yet  in  no  great  maritime  country  on  earth  are  the 
nominal  wages  of  seamen  so  dear. 


162 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


Thus  I have  also  stated  at  page  121,  that  while  the 
throwsters  of  France  and  of  Italy  are  still  content  if 
their  spindles  do  but  revolve  from  300  to  400  times  in  a 
minute,  those  of  the  English,  where  labor  is  dearer  than 
in  any  part  of  the  continent,  are  now  performing  from 
2000  to  3000;  but  by  a late  improvement  of  Mr.  Rit- 
son,  they  are  now  made  to  perform  4500  revolutions  in 
a minute;  yet  the  spindles  for  cotton,  which  are  put  in 
operation  by  our  own  countryman,  Mr.  Pettee,  of  New- 
ton, Mass.,  actually  perform  about  5000  revolutions,  or 
revolve  at  the  inconceivable  speed  of  eighty  rotations  in 
a second  of  time. 

At  the  silk  establishment  of  Mr.  Cobb,  at  Dedham, 
Mass.,  we  have  witnessed  a boy  of  13  years  of  age,  at- 
tending one  hundred  spindles  ; thus  performing,  as  we 
were  reminded  by  Mr.  Cobb,  the  same  amount  of  labor 
which  in  China  is  allotted  to  a hundred  laborers. 

For  the  following  very  important  facts  in  relation  to 
the  surprising  progress  of  the  cotton  manufactures  of 
our  own  country,  I am  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  Dr. 
Hobbs,  who  is  the  agent  of  the  great  establishment  of 
the  Boston  Manufacturing  Company  at  Waltham.  It  is 
an  extract  from  a letter  received  from  him,  dated  Oct. 
29th,  1836. 

‘‘  When  the  Boston  Manufacturing  Company  estab- 
lished their  works  at  Waltham,  there  were  no  power 
looms  in  use  in  this  country,  and  the  yarn  spun  for  the 
first  year  or  two,  was  sent  to  private  families  to  be  wo- 
ven. The  price  paid  for  weaving  a yard  of  37^  inch 
cloth,  of  No.  14  yarn,  varied  from  eight  to  twelve  cents 
a yard — a price  fully  equal  to  that  which  has  been  ob- 
tained for  the  cloth,  on  an  average,  for  the  last  five 
years.  Since  the  power  loom  has  been  in  operation,  it 
has  been  continually  undergoing  improvements  in  all  its 
parts — particularly  in  the  reeds,  harnesses,  and  shuttles. 
The  price  paid  for  the  weaving  has  varied  with  the  fa- 
cilities afforded  for  turning  off  the  cloth.  At  first,  the 
looms  were  driven  after  the  rale  of  from  seventy  to 


CLIxMATE  OF  THE  NORTHERN  STATES.  163 

eighty  beats  per  minute,  and  the  quantity  woven  in 
twelve  hours  was  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  yards.  We 
then  paid  one  cent  per  yard  for  weaving.  The  looms 
now  go  after  the  rate  of  from  120  to  130  beats  per  min- 
ute, and  each  loom  turns  off  from  forty  to  forty-five 
yards  of  cloth  in  twelve  hours.  We  now  pay  three-fifths 
of  a cent  per  yard  for  the  weaving; — each  girl  has  two 
looms,  but  occasionally  tends  three.  For  weaving  of 
finer  numbers,  a higher  price  is  of  course  paid,  as  a less 
quantity  of  cloth  is  woven  with  the  looms  at  the  same 
speed.’’ 

“ The  improvements  in  the  spinning  of  cotton  yarn 
by  water  power,  are  perhaps  more  striking  than  in  the 
weaving  department.  A girl  attends  to  256  spindles, 
which  will  spin  1,300,000  yards,  (or  about  740  miles  in 
extent,)  of  No.  14  yarn,  in  twelve  hours,  which  is  equal 
to  1548  hanks,  or  110  pounds.  To  do  this  on  hand 
machines  twenty  years  ago,  in  twelve  hours,  would  have 
required  upwards  of  500  girls.” 

Thus  has  America  been  enabled  to  compete  with  In- 
dia and  with  China,  and  even  with  the  world,  in  the  cul- 
ture and  manufacture  of  cotton,  and  also  to  undersell  them 
even  in  their  own  markets.  Is  there  one  American  who 
can  doubt  that  we  shall  do  the  same,  ere  long,  in  regard 
to  silk. 


SECTION  XLIX. 

REMARKS  ON  THE  CLIMATE  OF  THE  NORTHERN 
STATES. 

The  valleys  of  our  great  northern  rivers  or  arteries, 
possess  a climate,  which,  at  certain  seasons  during  win- 
ter, is  not  elsewhere  to  be  found  in  corresponding  lati- 
tudes, and  which  has  been  by  some  compared  to  that  of 
Siberia.  These  vallies,  however  rich  and  fertile,  are 


164 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


exposed  alike  to  the  destructive  frosts  of  winter  and  of 
summer.  The  winds  which  blow  almost  invariably  in 
the  longitudinal  direction  of  these  vallies,  bring  down  at 
certain  seasons,  a degree  of  cold  the  most  pernicious 
and  destructive.  Not  only,  in  certain  cases,  have  all 
manner  of  fruit  and  mulberry  trees  been  destroyed,  but 
also  the  button  wood,  the  red  cedar,  and  the  oak.  At 
Troy,  and  at  Albany,  both  downwards  towards  the 
Cattskill,  as  well  as  upwards  towards  Champlain,  we 
have  the  records  of  a degree  of  cold  the  most  extraor- 
dinary. Throughout  these  extensive  vallies,  and  great 
northern  floodgates,  the  rigors  of  a Canadian  w inter  are 
precipitated — of  winters  intensely  cold,  brought  down 
by  winds  from  high  northern  latitudes  and  the  frozen 
regions  of  the  arctic  circle. 

Thus  also  in  the  valley  of  the  Nashua  and  at  Lancas- 
ter, in  Massachusetts,  Mr.  Breck  has  observed  the  ther- 
mometer to  descend  as  low"  as  33  deg.  below  zero.  At 
Northampton,  also,  in  Massachusetts,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Connecticut  river,  the  thermometer  has  at  times  been 
observed  to  descend  to  33  deg.  below  zero.  Also  at 
Greenfield,  on  this  same  river,  and  about  the  latitude 
of  42  deg.  40  min.,  as  the  Rev.  Henry  Colman  has  in- 
formed me,  he  once  observed  that  the  mercury  of  his 
thermometer  had  descended  quite  into  the  bulb,  and 
more  than  to  37  deg.  below  zero,  which  w^as  the  low^est 
point  marked  on  the  scale  of  his  thermometer.  At 
other  points,  the  mercury  has  been  observed  to  descend 
to  38  deg.,  and  even  to  44  deg.  below  zero. 


THE  silk-worm’s  WILL. 


165 


THE  SILK-WORM’S  WILL. 

BY  MISS  H.  F.  GOULD. 

On  a plain  rush  hurdle  a silk-worm  lay, 
When  a proud  young  princess  came  that  way. 
The  haughty  child  of  a human  king 
Threw  a sidelong  glance  at  the  humble  thing, 
That  took  with  a humble  gratitude 
From  the  mulberry-leaf  her  simple  food — 

And  shrunk,  half  scorn  and  half  disgust, 
Away  from  her  sist€T  child  of  dust ; 

Declaring  she  never  yet  could  see 
Why  a reptile  form  like  this  should  be — 

That  she  was  not  made  with  nerves  so  firm, 

As  calmly  to  stand  by  a crawling  worm  ! " 

With  mute  forbearance  the  silk-worm  took 
The  taunting  words  and  the  spurning  look  ; 
Alike  a stranger  to  self  and  pride, 

She’d  no  disquiet  from  aught  beside. 

And  lived  of  a meekness  and  peace  possessed, 
Which  these  debar  from  the  human  breast. 

She  only  wished,  for  the  harsh  abuse, 

To  find  some  way  to  become  of  use 
To  the  haughty  daughter  of  lordly  man. 

And  thus  did  she  lay  a noble  plan, 

To  teach  her  wisdom  and  make  it  plain 
That  the  humble  worm  was  not  made  in  vain ; 
A plan  so  generous  deep  and  high, 

That  to  carry  it  out  she  must  even  die  ! 

No  more,”  said  she,  will  I drink  or  eat ! 
I’ll  spin  and  weave  me  a winding-sheet, 

To  wrap  me  up  from  the  sun’s  clear  light, 

To  hide  my  form  from  her  wounded  sight. 

In  secret  then  till  my  end  draws  nigh, 

I’ll  toil  for  her;  and  when  I die. 


166 


SILK  grower’s  guide. 


ni  leave  behind,  as  a farewell  boon, 

To  the  proud  young  princess,  my  whole  cocoon, 

To  be  reeled  and  wove  to  a shining  lace, 

And  hung  in  a veil  o’er  her  scornful  face  ! 

And  when  she  can  calmly  draw  her  breath 
Through  the  very  threads  that  have  caused  rny  death ; 
When  she  finds  at  length  she  has  nerves  so  firm 
As  to  wear  the  shroud  of  the  crawling  worm. 

May  she  bear  in  mind  that  she  walks  with  pride 
In  the  winding-sheet  where  the  silk- worm  died  ! ” 


LIST  OF  AUTHORS  AND  PUBLICATIONS  WHICH 
HAVE  BEEN  QUOTED  OR  CONSULTED. 

Names  of  the  authors  or  authorities  which  are  sometimes  either 
quoted  or  referred  to  in  this  work. 

Much  valuable  information  is  contained  in  the  Treatise  of  Dr. 
Pascalis  of  New  York  on  the  Mulberry  Tree  and  the  Culture  of 
Silk;  also  in  his  Silk  Culturist  formerly  published  in  New  York. 

The  Manual  of  the  Mulberry  Tree  and  the  Culture  of  Silk,”  of 
Mr,  Cobb,  is  well  known.  It  was  drawn  up  by  him,  by  order  of 
his  Excellency  the  Governor,  and  the  Legislature  of  the  Com- 
monwealth of  Massachusetts. 

I have  often  had  occasion  to  refer  to  the  Comte  Dandolo  and 
M.  Bonafoux,  of  Piedmont,  and  their  works.  These  are  the 
great  Italian  masters,  and  expounders  of  the  modern  system  of 
Italy.  The  work  sent  by  the  Comte  de  Hazzi  of  Bavaria,  and 
transmitted  through  Dr.  Mease  to  Congress,  was  chiefly  composed 
from  these  Italian  masters,  the  Comte  de  Hazzi  being  professedly 
their  disciple.  We  are  also  much  indebted  to  the  writings  and 
publications  of  Mr.  Rush,  while  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
Much  is  also  ascribed  to  the  writings  and  Essays  of  M.  D’Homer- 
gue,  a Frenchman  of  Nismes  in  France,  and  master  in  the  art  of 
the  filature,  who  is  now  at  Philadelphia.  Much  also  is  due  to  the 
venerable  Duponceau  and  numerous  others  who  have  written 
largely  on  the  subject. 


LIST  OF  AUTHORS. 


167 


Summary  of  the  Principal  Chinese  Treatises  on  the  Culture  of 
the  Mulberry,  and  the  Rearing  of  Silk-worms.”  Translated  from 
the  Chinese  into  French  by  Stanislaus  Julien.  Transmitted  from 
Paris  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  rendered  into  English  by 
Peter  Force,  Esq.,  Mayor  of  the  city  of  Washington. 

Chinese  Volume  of  Splendid  Descriptive  colored  Engravings  in 
Quarto,  representing  the  Chinese  Process  of  Cultivation  and  of 
raising  Silk. 

Cours  Complet  D ’Agriculture,  a most  complete  work,  published 
at  Paris. 

Annales  de  LTnstitut  Royal  Horticole  de  Fromont  by  the  Che- 
valier Soulange  Rodin,  in  6 vols.  from  1830  to  1835.  Paris. 

A Treatise  on  the  Origin,  Progressive  Improvement,  and  Pre- 
sent State  of  the  Silk  Manufacture.  Ry  Dr.  Lardner.  A most 
valuable  and  late  work. 

Philosophy  of  Manufactures.  Ry  Dr.  Ure.  London,  1835. 
A most  invaluable  work. 

Silk  Manual  compiled  and  written  by  Edward  P.  Roberts,  Edi- 
tor, Farmer  and  Gardener.  Raltimore,  1835.  A valuable  work. 

A Valuable  Manual  on  Silk,  by  Judge  Comstock:  Hartford, 
Conn.  1836. 

Also  the  Silk  Culturist,  a valuable  periodical  by  the  same 
writer. 

The  Silk  Worm,  a valuable  periodical  edited  by  S.  Rlydenburg 
of  Albany. 

The  Silk  Manual,  another  excellent  periodical,  edited  by  the  late 
Thomas  Green  Fessenden  of  Roston. 

The  American  Silk  Grower  is  another  valuable  periodical,  edit- 
ed by  Messrs.  Cheney,  of  Rurlington,  N.  J. 

Gideon  R.  Smith,  Esq.,  formerly  the  editor  of  the  American 
Farmer,  printed  at  Raltimore,  has  done  much  in  aid  of  the 
cause  by  his  writings  in  that  periodical,  and  also  by  a manual  he 
has  published. 

Jonathan  H.  Cobb,  Esq.,  of  Dedham  has  also  rendered  very 
important  services  to  the  cause  by  his  valuable  Manual  on  Silk, 
the  lectures  he  has  given  on  the  subject,  and  his  successful  prac- 
tice in  its  manufacture.  To  these  names  I will  add,  that  posterity 
will  be  indebted  also  to  the  efforts  of  Dr.  Franklin,  of  Aspinwall, 
of  Pinkney,  and  of  the  Rev.  President  Styles  at  an  earlier  period 
of  time. 

Other  and  very  numerous  writers  there  are,  of  the  present 
day,  which  we  need  not  name. 

Much  is  due  to  the  unwearied  labors  of  the  Hon.  H.  A.  S.  Dear- 
born for  his  luminous  writings.  His  important  services  in  the 
cause  of  the  science  of  Horticulture,  also  of  Silk,  have  given  a pow- 
erful impulse,  which  will  be  felt  and  acknowledged  both  by  the 
present  and  future  generations. 


NEW  AMERICAN  ORCHARDIST. 

Weeks,  Jordan  & Co.,  121  Washington  street,  have  for  sale, 
THE  NEW  AMERICAN  ORCHARDIST, 
or  an  account  of  the  most  valuable  varieties  of  fruit  of  all  cli- 
mates, adapted  to  cultivation  in  the  United  States,  with  their  his- 
tory, modes  of  culture,  management,  &c.,  and  the  Culture  of  Silk, 
with  an  Appendix  on  Vegetables,  Ornamental  Trees,  Shrubs  and 
Flowers.  By  William  Kenrick.  Second  edition,  enlarged  and 
improved — 420  pages  12mo.,  elegantly  bound,  at  $1. 


FRUIT  AND  ORNAMENTAL  TREES,  MULBERRIES,  &c. 

JVurserij  of  William  Kenrick. 

The  Catalogue  of  Fruit  and  Ornamental  Trees  for  1839  is  now 
ready,  and  will  be  sent  to  all  who  apply.  It  comprises  a most  ex- 
tensive selection  of  the  superior  varieties  of  Pears,  Apples,  Plums^ 
Peaches,  Cherries,  Quinces,  Gooseberries,  Raspberries,  Currants, 
Strawberries,  Grape  Vines,  &c.  The  stock  of  Cherries  and 
Peaches  now  ready  is  particularly  large.  Also,  Ornamental 
Trees,  Shrubs,  Roses,  Honeysuckles,  Pasonies,  Dahlias,  and  other 
Herbaceous  Flowering  Plants. 

Morus  Multicaulis,  and  other  Mulberries,  the  trees  genuine 
and  fine,  at  prices  fair,  and  varying  with  the  size  and  the  quality 
which  may  be  desired. 

Fruit  and  all  other  Trees,  when  so  ordered,  will  be  securely 
packed  for  safe  transportation  to  distant  places,  and  all  orders 
promptly  executed  on  application  to  the  subscriber 

WILLIAM  KENRICK. 

JVonantum  Hilly  JVeictony  near  Boston,  Jan.  1, 1839. 


a;gricultural  warehouse, 

SEED  STORE, 

AND 

OFFICE  OF  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  FARMER, 
NOS.  51  & 52  NORTH  MARKET  STREET, 
BOSTON. 


The  proprietors  of  this  Eslablishmenl  would  inform  their  friends  and 
the  public,  that  they  keep  constantly  on  hand  and  for  sale,  the  greatest 
variety  of  Agricutural  Implements,  Grass  Seeds,  Garden 
AND  Flower  Seeds,  Bulbous  Roots,  Double  Dahlias,  &c.  &c. 
to  be  found  in  the  country. 

FIELD  SEEDS. 

Northern  Clover,  Southern  Clover,  White  Honeysuckle  Clover,  Lu- 
cerne, Herdsgrass,  or  Timothy,  Red  Top  Southern  Seed,  Red  Top 
Northern  Seed,  Fowl  Meadow,  Orchard  Grass,  Ruta  Baga,  Mangel 
Wurtzel,  Sugar  Beet,  &c.  Winter  and  Summer  Wheat,  Winter  and  Sum- 


2 


J.  Breck  ^ Co.’s  Catalogue  of 


mer  Rye,  Barley,  Oats  English,  Corn  of  various  sorts,  IMillett,  Hemp, 
Flax  Seed,  Potatoes. 

GARDEN  SEEDS 

Of  every  desirable  variety  will  be  furnished  wholesale  and  retail;  by  the 
pound,  box,  or  package. 

SEEDS  IN  BOXES, 

For  retailing,  done  up  in  the  neatest  manner  in  packages,  with  the  name 
and  directions  printed  on  each  parcel.  Retailers  supplied  on  most  favor- 
able terms,  with  boxes  from  to  $100. 

FOR  THE  FLOWER  GARDEN. 

We  have  a very  extensive  collection  of  choice  Flower  Seeds,  em- 
bracing all  the  Annuals,  Biennials,  and  Perennials  worthy  of  cultivation. 
Packages  of  twenty  fine  sorts  for  one  dollar. 

Dutch  Bulbous  Roots. — We  import  of  these  annually  from  Hol- 
land, a splendid  collection,  consisting  of  double  and  single  Hyacinths, 
double  and  single  Tulips,  Crown  Imperials,  Narcissus,  Iris,  Crocus  Gla- 
diolus, Amaryllis,  Ixias,  &c.  &c. 

Double  Dahlia  Roots. — Of  this  beautiful  and  popular  flower,  we 
have  more  than  two  hundred  fine  varieties,  embracing  all  that  were  shown 
at  the  exhibition  of  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society.  Roots  can 
be  furnished  from  the  first  of  October  to  the  first  of  July,  safely  packed 
in  moss,  and  sent  to  any  part  of  the  country. 

Fruit  and  Ornamental  Trees  and  Shrubs  furnished  to  order  at  Nursery 
prices. 

Large  plants  of  the  Morus  Malticaulis , and  cuttings  of  the  same,  can 
be  furnished  by  the  hundred  or  thousand  at  moderate  prices. 

We  would  call  the  attention  of  the  public  to  the  New  England 
Farmer;  one  of  the  oldest  and  best  agricultural  newspapers  in  the 
country,  containing  a great  amount  of  interesting  and  useful  matter  for 
the  practical  farmer  and  gardener.  It  is  issued  at  our  office  weekly,  on 
Wednesdays,  at  the  moderate  price  of  $2  50  per  year  in  advance,  or  $3 
at  the  close  of  the  year. 

Among  our  agricultural  Books  we  keep  for  sale,  I’he  Complete  Farm- 
er ; Kenrick’s  Orchardist ; American  Gardener  ; Bridgman’s  Garden- 
er’s Assistant;  Moubray  on  Poultry;  Silk  Grower’s  Guide  ; Cobb’s 
Silk  Manual;  Loudon’s  Works,  together  with  a great  variety  of  usefu 
and  interesting  works  in  this  line. 


Agricultural  Implements, 


We  hope  by  unremitting  attention,  to  sustain  the  credit  of  this  estab- 
lishment, and  realize  the  anticipations  of  our  predecessors,  Newell, 
Russell,  & Barrett,  in  making  it  one  of  the  most  complete  deposi- 
tories for  every  thing  in  the  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  line  in  the 
country.  JOSEPH  BRECK  & CO. 


The  Agricultural  Warehouse  has  been  established  in  Boston 
about  seventeen  years,  and  has  become  so  extensive  and  of  so  much 
importance  to  the  community,  as  to  induce  the  proprietors  to  con- 
tinue and  extend  it  in  all  its  various  branches  for  the  accommoda. 
tion  of  experimental  and  scientific  Farmers,  by  the  introduction 
of  new  and  useful  implements  of  Husbandry,  and  to  furnish  the 
practical  farmer  with  the  best  tools  for  his  business.  An  establish- 
ment of  this  kind  not  only  serves  the  above  purpose  but  as  a deposite 
for  the  inventive  artisan  to  place  his  articles  for  sale.  The  proprie- 
tors do  not  hesitate  to  say,  that  among  the  great  variety  of  articles 
on  hand  at  this  establishment,  many  are  found  far  superior  in  form 
and  construction  and  better  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  they 
are  intended  than  any  which  have  been  in  use  in  this  country. 

It  was  remarked  by  Sir  John  Sinclair  that  the  introduction  of 
new  Agricultural  implements  into  a district  is  often  a matter  o f 
the  greatest  difficulty,  owing  to  the  ignorance,  the  prejudice  and 
obstinacy  of  farm  laborers ) many  farmers,  therefore,  very  absurd- 
ly retain  their  old  implements  though  convinced  of  their  inferiori- 
ty, rather  than  sour  the  temper  of  their  laborers  by  attempting  to 
introduce  new  ones. 

In  many  cases,  however,  the^  have  succeeded  ) by  attention 
and  perseverance,  and  by  rewarding  their  laborers,  many  new  im- 
plements have  been  brought  into  general  use. 


4 


J,  Brech  Co/s  Catalogue  of 


WILLIS’S  STATIONARY  HORSE  POWER,  AND  CORN 
CRACKER  ATTACHED. 


Willis’s  Improved  Horse  Power,  for  driving  all  kinds  of  ma- 
chinery such  as  Cider  Mills,  Winnowing  Mills,  Straw  and  Hay 
Cutters,  Threshing  Machines,  Corn  Shellers,  Grindstones,  &c. 


Agricultural  Implements. 


5 


FARNHAM’S  IMPROVED  PATENT  GRATER  CIDER 

MILL. 

^he  improvement  in  this  mill  is  in  grinding,  or  rather  grating 
the  apples  very  fine,  so  that  all  the  juice  is  pressed  out;  and  pro- 
duces a greater  quantity  of  liquor  from  the  same  quantity  of  pom- 
ace. The  above  mills  are  in  extensive  operation,  and  very  much 
approved  of.  They  will  grind  two  bushels  of  apples  per  minute, 
and  no- way  liable  to  get  out  of  order. 

With  little  attention  it  can  be  made  one  of  the  best  vegetable 
grinders  for  grinding  or  cutting  food  for  animals. 

CIDER  SCREWS. 

Patent  Cast  Iron  Cider  Screw.  This  is  a new  article  and  far 
surpasses  any  thing  of  the  kind  ever  introduced  ; they  are  much 
more  powerful  than  the  wooden  screws. 


HALE’S  IMPROVED  HORSE  POWER. 


This  Horse  power  is  calculated  to  propel  any  kind  of  machine- 
ry, or  Agricultural  implement,  such  as  Threshing  Machines, 
Cider  Mills,  Corn  Shelter,  Grindstones,  &c.  &c. ; is  very  simple 
in  its  construction,  occupies  but  the  small  spnce  of  nine  feet  by 
two,  and  can  easily  be  transported  from  one  place  to  another,  the 
improvements  made  on  this  Horse  Power,  render  it  the  most 
superior  article,  for  the  purpose,  now  in  use. 

HALE’S  PATENT  THRESHING  MACHINE. 

The  best  machine  now  in  use,  will  thresh  from  75  to  100 
bushels  per  day,  in  the  best  possible  manner. 


1 


6 


J.  lireck  4"  Co.'s  Catalogue  of 


POPE’S  THRESHING  MACHINE. 


Pape’s  Thre.shing  Machine  was  invented  by  tlie  late  Joseph 
Pope,  Esq.  of  Hallowell,  Me.,  and  has  been  in  successful  opera 
tion  in  different  parts  of  the  country  for  many  years.  It  is  found 
to  operate  well  for  all  kinds  of  g'rain,  and  is  well  adopted  for 
©leaning  rice. 


GREEN’S  PATENT  STRAW  CUTTER. 


8 Patent  Straw,  Hay  and  Stalk  Cutter,  operating  on  a 
c anical  principle  not  before  applied  to  any  implement  for^thia 


Agricultural  Implements, 


r 


purpose.  The  most  prominent  effects  of  this  application,  and  some 
of  the  consequent  peculiarities  of  the  machine  are  : 

1.  So  great  a reduction  of  the  quantum  of  power  requisite  to 
use  it,  that  the  strength  of  a half  grown  boy  is  sufficient  ^o  work 
it  very  efficiently. 

2.  With  even  this  moderate  power,  it  easily  cuts  two  bushels  a 
minute,  which  is  full  twice  as  fast  as  has  been  claimed  by  any 
other  machine  even  when  worked  by  horse  or  steam  power. 

3.  The  knives,  owing  to  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  they  cut, 
require  sharpening  less  often  than  those  of  smy  other  straw  cutter. 

4.  The  machine  is  simple  in  its  construction,  made  and  put  to- 
gether yery  strongly.  It  is  therefore  not  so  liable  as  the  compli- 
cated machines  in  general  use,  to  get  out  of  order. 

BOYNTON’S  PATENT  DOUBLE  CYLINDER  STRAW 
CUTTER. 


This  is  a new  and  useful  article  for  cutting  fodder  for  horses  or 
cattle.  The  advantage  of  this  machine  is  the  ease  and  expedition 
with  which  it  cuts  hay,  straw,  or  corn  stalks  ; doing  the  work  at 
the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  minute,  with  the  greatest  ease. 


8 


J,  Breck  Co/s  Catalogue  of 


WILLIS’S  IMPROVED  PATENT  VERTICAL  HAY  AND 
STRAW  CUTTER. 


This  Straw  and  Hay  Cutter  which  has  been  in  use  for  several 
years,  is  found  from  experience  to  be  the  best  Machine,  for  the 
purpose  that  has  been  invented.  They  are  made  of  the  best  ma- 
terials and  workmanship  : constructed  on  the  best  mechanical 
principles.  The  knives  being  placed  fn  such  a manner,  as  to  op- 
erate as  a drawing  stroke  ; cuts  very  free  and  easy,  and  not  liable 
to  get  out  of  order  ; will  readily  cut  thirty  bushels  per  hour;  it  is 
fed  and  worked  by  one  man,  which  is  not  the  case  with  many 
other  machines.  -- 


Mr  Benjamin  Hale's  account  of  the  savings  made  hy  the  use  of  Straw 
Cutters^  employed  to  cut  Hay  and  Straio  as  Fodder  for  Horses. 

Mr  Hale  is  proprietor  of  a line  of  stages  running  between  New- 
buryport  and  Boston.  He  says — 

The  whole  amount  of  .hay  purchased  from  April  1, 
to  Oct.  1,  1816,  (six  months,)  and  used  at  the  Tons.  cwt.  qrs.  Ihs, 
stage  stable,  was  - - - - - - 32  4 0 10 

At  $25  per  ton  (the  lowest  price  at  which  hay  was 

purchased  in  1816) 

From  Oct.  1,  1816,  to  April  1,  1817,  whole  amount 
of  hay  and  straw  purchased  for,  and  consumed 
by  the  same  number  of  horses,  viz. 

T.  cwt.  qrs.  lbs.  Cost. 

Straw  1 13  '3  10  $160  p 

Hay  13  14  1 00  $350  00 


$510  23 

Deduct  on  hand  April  1,  1817,  by  estima- 
tion, four  tons  more  than  there  was 
Oct.  1,  1816,  at  $25  per  ton,  $100  00 


Agricultural  Implements, 


9 


Saving  by  the  use  of  the  Straw  Cutter,  four  months 
of  the  last  six  months,  or  the  difference  in  expense 
in  feeding  with  cut  fodder  and  that  which  is  uncut, 
"Vyhole  amount  of  hav  useci  for  the  horses  of  the  Sa- 
lem stage,  twentvfive  in  number,  from  April  I,  to 
Oct.  1,  1816,  viz' 

At  thirty  dollars  per  ton  (the  lowest  price  in  Salem) 
Whole  amount  consumed  by  the  same  number  of 
horses,  from  Oct.  1,  1816,  to  April  1,  1817, 

T.  cwt.  qi's.  lbs.  Cost. 

Straw  15  13  0 0 ^187  80 

Hay  2 15  0 0 81  00 


389  77 


T.  cict.  qrs.  lbs. 
22  0 0 0 


660  00 


263  80 


A very  simple  and  effective  machine,  no  way  liable  to  get  out  of 
order.  Cuts  hay,  straw,  or  corn  stalks  with  perfect  ease,  and  at 
a rapid  rale;  a firm,  good  and  cheap  machine  for  small  work,  say 
four  to  six  horses.  It  is  just  the  article  that  has  been  wanting  to 
lake  the  place  of  the  old  fashioned  Dutch  Cutler. 


Saving  in  using  chopped  fodder  five  months, 

Total  saving  in  using  the  straw  cutter  nine  months, 
viz.  at  Newburyport,  four  months, 

At  Salem  five  months, 


391  20 


389  77 
391  20 


Total,  $780  97 


WILLIS’S  IMPROVED  GUILOTINE  STRAW  CUTTER, 


10 


J,  Breck  Co/s  Catalogue  of 


PLOUGHS. 


This  implement,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  useful  employed 
on  a farm,  has  undergone  of  late  years,  a wonderful  change  in  all 
its  most  essential  parts,  and  has  be  en  greatly  improved.  The  Cast 
Iron  Plough  is  now  most  generally  used  among  the  best  farmers, 
and  considered  decidedly  the  best.  Among  the  different  ploughs 
now  made  of  cast  iron,  Howard’s  stand  unrivalled.  They  have 
been  used  at  the  different  Cattle  Shows,  and  Ploughing  Matches, 
and  have  in  all  cases  been  approved  by  them.  At  the  Brighton 
Cattle  Show  at  the  exhibition  in  October,  1832,  they  received  the 
premium  of  $10,  awarded  as  being  the  best  plough  presented. 

Extract  from  the  Report  of  the  Committee. 

The  Ploughs  were  all  of  cast  iron,  and  by  six  of  the  most  ap- 
proved manufucturers.  The  one  by  Mr  Charles  Howard  of  Hing- 
ham,  was  a superior  implement,  considerable  improvements  having 
recently  been  made  by  him,  in  making  the  mould  board  much 
longer  than  usual,  and  swelling  the  breast  of  the  share,  so  as  to 
make  every  part  bear  equally,  by  which  means  the  plough  runs 
more  true  and  steady,  is  always  free  from  carrying  forward  any 
earth,  and  wears  perfectly  bright ; and  being  made  on  mathemati- 
cal principles,  he  informed  the  committee  he  could  make  the  dif- 
ferent sizes  always  tho  same.”  John  Prince, 

Ebenezer  Heath, 
John  Baker,  3d. 

The  duty  of  awarding  a premium  To  the  Plough  which  shall 
be  adjudged  best  of  all  those  used  at  the  Ploughing  Match,”  de- 
volved on  the  two  committees^  and  they  agreed  unanimously  to 
award  to  Mr  Charles  Howard  of  Hingham,  for  his  new  and  im- 
proved Plough,  $10.  Gorham  Parsons, 

Chairman  of  Single  Teams. 

John  Prince, 

Chairman  of  Double  Teams. 

Side  Hill  Plough.  This  plough,  fm*  which  a premium 
was  given  at  Brighton,  is  found  to  be  a very  great  improvement 
on  the  ploughs  qow  in  use,  for  working  on  side  hills.  The  mould 
board  is  so  constructed  as  to  shift  on  each  side,  as  may  be  required, 
by  turning  on  the  underside  of  the  plough  as  the  team  turns  at 
each  end  of  the  furrow. 


Agricultural  Implements, 


11 


Howaud.’s  Improved  Double  Mould-Board  Plough.  Thia 
plough  is  well  calculated  for  furrowing  out  land — splitting  hills — 
ploughing  between  corn,  potato,  and  vegetable  cultivation,  to 
great  advantage.  A great  labor  saving  machine,  saves  nearly  all 
the  hoeing  of  corn  or  potatoes. 

Bigelow’s  Plough.  This  plough  is  made  of  wrought  iron,  and 
is  in  general  use,  and  very  much  approved,  being  very  strong  and 
quite  light,  does  the  work  well  with  little  labor. 

Rice’s  Common  Wood  Plough,  of  all  sizes. 

PLOUGH  SCRAPERS,  of  all  sizes. 

PLOUGHSHARES. 

Wrought  and  Cast  Iron  Ploughshares  of  all  sizes  fitted  and  pre- 
pared in  such  manner,  as  to  be  at  all  times  ready  and  fit  for  im- 
mediate use^ 


CULTIVATORS. 


Howard’s  Improved  Fixed  and  Expanding  Cultivators, 
ot  all  sizes*  The  cultivator  is  an  implement  that  is  coming  into 
very  general  use  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  serves  in  a great 
measure  in  lieu  of  hoeing.  The  teeth  are  so  constructed  as  to 
raise  the  ground,  and  leaqes  it  very  light  and  free  for  cultivation, 
and  at  the  same  time  destroys  the  weeds. 

These  Cultivators  are  best  adapted  to  free  and  easy  ground,  for 
running  through  rows  of  corn,  potatoes  and  vegetables  of  all 
kinds,  and  used  in  the  cultivation  of  Hops,  instead  of  the  plough 
and  hoe,  and  are  found  far  superior  to  either.  It  is  likewise  well 
adapted  to  harrow  in  grain  and  grass  seed  ; and  for  the  many  uses 
to  which  this  implement  may  be  applied,  it  must  be  considered  one 
of  the  most  valuable  and  useful  tools  that  are  used  on  a farm,  and 
is  coming  iilto  very  general  use. 

This  certifies  that  1 have  used  Howard’s  Cultivator,  and  find  it 
a much  better  article  to  work  among  corn  and  potatoes,  than  any 
machine  that  I have  ever  tried  ; it  clears  the  weeds  between  the 
rows,  much  more  effectually  than  either  plough  or  harrow,  and 
saves  a great  deal  of  labor.  Benj.  Wheeler. 


12 


J,  Breck  ^ Co.^s  Catalogue  of 


HAND  CULTIVATOR, 


This  is  a very  useful  article  for  going  between  vegetables,  in 
order  to  keep  down  the  weeds.  A man,  with  one  of  these  ma- 
chines, will  do  more  work  than  four  or  five  with  the  hoe. 


ENGLISH  SCARIFIER. 


One  of  the  most  useful  articles  to  be  found  on  a farm.  It  is 
used  on  grass  ground  to  admit  the  air  and  moisture  to  the  roots  of 
the  grass.  They  are  very  much  esteem^  in  the  old  .countries. 

TRANSPLANTING  TROWEL  AND  FORK. 

This  little  garden  implement  is  indispensable,  particularly  to  a 
lady  in  her  flower  garden,  being  useful  in  every  instance  in  trans- 
planting and  removing  plants  of  every  description. 


Agricultural  Implements. 


13 


j,  DAVIS’S  IMPROVED  PATENT  DIRT  SCRAPER. 


This  road  or  dirt  scraper  invent(*d  by  Shadrach  Davis,  is  used  * 
to  great  advantage  in  removing  dirt  or  gravel,  more  particularly,  • 
in  stony  lands,  from  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  points,  which 
are  similar  to  those  of  a plough  point.  Tliey  enter  the  ground 
very  free  and  easy,  fill  and  discharge  themselves,  and  are  easily 
managed  by  one  horse  or  yoke  of  oxen.  Ploughing  is  not  neces- 
sary where  these  shovels  are  used. 

We  the  undersigned  hereby  certify  that  we  have  used  Davis’s 
patent  plough  pointed  road  and  dirt  scraper,  and  we  consider  it 
a great  improvement  on  the  contmon  road  scraper,  and  can,  with 
confidence  recommend  it  to  the  public,  as  being  superior  to  any 
implement  of  the  kind  we  have  ever  used,  particularly  in  sandy 
and  stony  land,  being  so  constructed  as  to  load  itself  without  the 
use  of  ploughing,  which  is  common  in  using  the  old  fashioned  dirt 
scraper  ; we  consider  it  one  of  the  greatest  labor  saving  imple- 
ments to  the  road  maker  that  can  be  used,  and  as  such,  we  fully 
recommend  it  to  the  public. 

Abm.  Washburn,  Bridgewater. 

H ENRY  S.  Packard,  JS'orth  Dartmouth. 

Bradford  Howland,  South  Dartmouth. 


HOES. 


Great  improvement  has  been  made  in  this  article.  A great  va- 
riety of  Hoes  of  different  form  and  shape,  and  manufactured  of 
different  materials,  are  now  in  use  among  our  best  farmers.  Those 
with  crooked  necks  and  sockets  are  the  most  approved  and  in 
general  use.* 


2 


14 


J.  Breck  4*  Co.’s  Catalogue  of 


The  Prong  or  Potatoe  Hoe,  is  a*’new  arlicle,  and  much  ap- 
proved; it  is  found  to  be  one  of  the  most  useful  though  simple 
articles  that  are  used  on  a farm.  It  was  invented  and  used  in  the 
first  instancor  potatoes,  but  was  afterwards  found  to  be 

as  useful  for  planting  and  hoeing  as  for  digging,  and  likewise  for 
every  other  purpose  for  which  a Ime  can  be  used.  It  is  used  to 
the  most  advantage  in  stony  or  rocky  land,  and  in  planting  new 
land.  It  is  likewise  a good  garden  hoe,  being  one  of  the  best  tools 
a gardener  can  have  in  use,  in  working  between  rows  of  vegeta- 
bles, and  digging  around  young  trees. 

Lord  Vernon's  New  Tillage  Hoe.  The  utility  and  ad- 
vantage of  this  garden  hoe  will  be  duly  appreciated  upon  trial. 
Few  gardeners  or  nurserymen  employed  in  gardening,  will  be 
without  them  when  they  have  once  used  Iheoi.  Tiiey  are  em- 
ployed to  great  advantage  \n  deep  tillage  j in  many  cases  they  are 
superior  to  digging  or  forking  the  land. 


CHANDLER’S  IMPROVED  DOUBLE  PIARROW. 


Agricultural  Implements, 


15 


can  be  raised  and  swung^over  on  the  other  half  as  occasion  re- 
quires. Its  advantage  over  the  common  Harrows  is,  that  it  is 
less  liable  to  he  stopped,  as  one  side  may  be  elevated  or  turned  to 
a perpendicular  position,  while  the  other  side  proceeds  horizontal- 
ly; it  may  thus  be  drawn  nearer  to  rocks,  trees,  &c.  It  will  like- 
wise better  adapt  itself  to  ridges,  hollows,  and  uneven  land. 

Harrow  Teeth  of  all  sizes,  steel  or  iron. 


LOCK’S  GARDEN  AND  FIELD  ROLLERS. 


It  is  found  by  our  best  practical  and  scientific  farmers  that  grass 
need,  sown  in  the  fall  requires  to  be  rolled  in  the  spring  as  soon  as 
the  ground  is  in  fit  order,  otherwise  the  .small  plants,  being  but 
slightly  rooted,  heave  up  by  the  frost  and  sufiiir  perhaps  total  de- 
Btruction.  Among  the  many  uses  to  which  the  roller  may  be  ap- 
plied, none  perhaps  would  be  more  valuable  than  rolling  grass 
land  in  the  spring.  Fall  sown  grass  seed  and  grain  are  liable  to  be 
winter  killed,  or  destroyed  by  frost : but  when  rolled  in,  there  will 
be  less  dangei  either  fiom  frost  or  drought,  if  the  seed  is  well  cov- 
ered witi)  a harrow  and  the  ground  is  well  rolled.  If  the  ground  is 
very  mellow,  the  iarge  sized  wooden  roller  is  preferred,  as  it 
presses  the  ground  more  direct,  and  renders  tl»e  surface  more  regu- 
lar and  even,  and  moves  easier.  For  garden  rollers  or  gravel 
walks,  the  stone  or  iron  rollers  are  preferred. 

The  Rollers  vary  in  price,  acco.  ding  to  the  size. 

CAST  STEEL  SPADES  AND  SHOVELS. 


Ames’s  Improved  Cast  Steel  Back  Strapped  Sho- 
TiCLjS,  are  snpi  nor  in  every  respect  to  the  common  steel  and 


16 


J.  Breck  ^ Co.’s  Catalogue  of 


iron  shovel.  They  wear  much  longer,  continue  brighter,  and  work 
with  great  ease.  This  article,  although  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon and  oldest  tools  in  use,  has  of  late  been  much  improved,  as 
likewise  the  Cast  Steel  Spades,  made  by  different  manufacturers. 

Grain  and  Cider  Shovels. 

Irish  Shovels  and  Spades,  with  long  handles. 


GAULT’S  PATENT  CHURN, 


Which  has  been  in  use  for  several  years,  is  the  most  approved 
and  convenient  churn  now  in  use.  The  particular  advantage  is 
the  ease  and  facility  with  which  it  can  be  worked.  Frorn  its 
quick  and  powerful  motion  it  will  produce  the  greatest  quantity  of 
butter  from  the  same  quantity  of  cream  ; is  easy  to  clean  and  no 
way  liable  to  get  out  of  order. 

Mr  Fessenden,  Editor  of  the  JVcw  England  Farmer. 

Sir  — In  answer  to  the  inquiry  respecting  the  Gault’s  Churn 
which  1 purchased  at  the  Agricultural  Warehouse,!  give  it  as  iny 
decided  opinion,  that  they  are  the  best  churns  1 have  ever  seen  in 
use.  They  are  very  convenient  to  keep  qk'an,  bring  the  butter 
very  easy,  and  require  not  more  than  15  to  20  minutes  to  do  a 
churning.  Respectfully  yours,  B.  Reynolds. 

Sharon y June  15,  1834. 

Stone  Churns.  A small  article  well  calculated  for  small  dai- 
ries. 

Philadelphia  Barrel  Churns,  of  different  sizes. 


Agricultural  Implements, 


17 


CHEESE  PRESSES. 


Shaker’s  Improved  Self-Governing  Cheese  Presses.  These 
Presses  are  so  constructed  that  they  govern  and  regulate  their.- 
lelves,  without  weights,  and  are  far  ihe  best  presses  now  in  use. 

Leavitt’s  Improved  Cheese  Press,  which  is  so  constructed 
iitiat  seven  or  fourteen  pounds  weight  will  press  any  common  sized 
cheese. 


CHEESE  HOOPS— different  sizes. 

CHEESE  CLOTHS. 

2* 


18 


J,  Breck  Co/s  Catalogue  of 


SELF  CHEESE  PRESSES. 


A new  and  useful  article  lately  improved  by  the  Shakers.  It 
needs  no  weights,'  as  the  heft  of  the  chee&e  is  sufficient  to  press 
itself.  It  is  so  constructed  that  it  puts  on  just  such  weight  as  is 
required  for  a large  or  small  cheese. 

LACTOMETERS.* 

This  invention  is  found  to  be  of  great  utility  and  advantage  in 
testing  the  quality  of  cream  given  by  each  cow.  It  consists  of  a 
snrall  mahogany  frame  which  contains  4 or  6 glass  tubes  of  10 
inches  in  length  and  lialf  an  inch  in  diameter.  These  tubes  are 
divided  into  tenths,  and  numbered  from  4 to  10,  which  shows  the 
quantity  of  cream  given  by  each  cow.  Tins  little  article  is  found 
ery  useful,  and  is  much  used  in  large  dairies. 

TREE  BRUSHES. 

Pickering’s  Improved  Brushes  are  found  to  be  the  most  ef- 


Agricultural  Implements. 


19 


fective  and  useful  implements  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  trees 
and  destroying  caterpillars,  of  any  thing  that  has  ever  been  used. 
This  brush,  which  is  made  in  a spiral  and  taper  form,  and  about 
eight  inches  long,  is  fixed  on  the  end  of  a pole,  the  small  part  of 
the  brush  is  entered  into  the  webs,  and  a moderate  twist  of  two  or 
three  turns,  takes  the  web  and  all  connected  with  it  clear  from  the 
tree.  It  should  be  used  early  in  the  morning  and  late  in  the  after- 
noon when  the  insects  are  in  their  nests. 


SWITCHING  BILL. 


This  article  is  much  used  in  England  in  pruning  and  clearing 
hedges,  and  is  a good  article  as  a substitute  for  the  pruning  saw  and 
chisel,  and  can  be  used  with  more  expedition. 

PRUNING  SHEARS. 

This  article  made  by  Wakefield,  of  Gardiner,  has  been  much 
improved  by  others  and  now  finished  in  a very  superior  manner,  is 
used  for  the  purpose  of  trimming  Grape  Vines,  Green  House 
Plants,  and  all  kinds  of  Shrubbery,  and  is  found  to  be  one  of  the 
most  useful  implements  that  can  be  used  by  a Gardener.  Cuts 
very  smooth,  .without  injury  to  the  bark  or  wood. 

PRUNING  CHISELS  AND  SAWS. 


Of  all  the  implements  that  are  used  on  a farm,  there  are  none 
used  to  more  profit  and  advantage  than  the  Pruning  Knife  and 
Saw.  Too  many  of  our  fruit  and  ornamental  trees  are  suffered  to 
run  to  wood  ; from  this  circumstance,  we  have  less  fruit  and  of 
an  inferior  quality. 

BUDDING  AND  PRUNING  KNIVES. 

A.  great  variety  of  Budding  and  Pruning  Knives  of  various 
forms  and  shapes,  some  very  superior. 

TREE  SCRAPERS. 

This  article,  which  is  indispensable  in  keeping  trees  in  good 
order,  should  be  used  every  season  in  removing  the  dry  and  hard 
bark  from  trees  to  insure  a quick  and  vigorous  growth  and  keep 
them  in  full  bearing. 


20 


J.  Rreck  ^ Co.*s  Catalogue  of 


FRUIT  SHEARS, 


Attached  to  a pole,  are  for  the  purpose  of  taking  fruit  from  the 
exlre;ne  branches-  of  trees  or  such  parts  as  are  not  to  be  come  at 
conveniently  in  any  other  way.  They  are  found  to  be  very  con- 
venient and  useful.  They  are  likewise  used  for  taking  off  scions, 
&c. 


FRUIT  GATHERERS. 


A very  useful  article  for  gathering  fruit,  more  especially  for  a 
gentleman  or  lady  who  wishes  to  collect  a few  articles  of  fruit  for 
the  table. 

TREE  AND  BUSH  PULLERS. 

The  tree  and  thebusli  puller,  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and  ef- 
fective implements  in  use;  it  is  employed  in  clearing  land  of  un- 
der brush,  and  small  trees,  barberry  and  other  bushes.  The  ground 
is  loosened  around  the  tree  or  bush  which  is  to  be  removed. 
The  teeth  or  claws  are  entei'ed  on  or»e  side,  a horse  or  oxen  are 
attached  by  a chain  to  the  claw  and  drawn  on  the  opposite  side. 
One  man  and  horse  or  yoke  of  oxen  will  do  more  work  with  this 
implement,  than  five  men  can  do  without  it,  in  digging  and  clear- 
ing land. 

SCYTHES. 

Taft’s  Patent  Cast  Steel  Concave  Scythes,  are  found  to  be 
much  superior  to  any  other  scythe  now  used.  From  their  peculiar 
form  they  have  a very  free  and  easy  drawing  stroke  and  being 
concave  present  a ihin  edge.  They  are  easily  ground  and  kept  in 
good  order.  From  the  peculiar  construction  of  these  scythes  the 
edge  is  always  left  true  in  the  middle  of  the  scythe. 

also, 

Metcalf s improved  double  sett,  agricultutal  Scythes,  likewise 
Philips,  Messer  Colby’s,  ail  first  rale  scythes. 


Agricultural  Implements, 


21 


SCYTHE  SNAITHS. 

This  article,  though  in  very  common  use,  has  been  altered  and 
improved  to  great  advantage.  The  Snaiths  manufactured  by  V. 
Baker  for  the  proprietors  of  the  Agricultural  Warehouse,  are 
found  to  be  the  most  approved  and  best  calculated  to  work  free 
and  easy.  The  regular  turn  at  tlie  heel,  and  the  strong  and  sub- 
stantial iron  rings  which  secure  the  scythe  and  nibs,  are  consid- 
ered great  improvements  in  these  Snaiths. 

SCYTHE  RIFLES. 

Austin’s  Rifles  are  considered  the  best.  They  are  cased  wdth 
fine  Emery,  wear  well  and  give  a good  sharp  edge.  They  have 
become  in  very  general  use  and  are  a good  substitute  for  the 
scythe  stone. 


REVOLVING  HORSE  RAKE. 


The  Revolving  Rake  which  has  been  in  general  use  in  most 
parts  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  is  found  to  be  one  of  the 
most  useful  and  labor  saving  machines  now  in  use.  One  man^and 
horse  with  a boy  to  lead,  will  rake  on  an  average  from  25  to 
30  acres  per  day,  with  ease,  and  do  the  work  well.  They  are 
coming  into  very  general  use  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  will, 
no  doubt,  in  a few  years  supersede  the  use  of  the  common  hand 
rake.  There  is  a great  advantage  in  this  rake  over  all  others,  as 
the  person  using  it  does  not  have  to  stop  the  horse  to  unload  the 
rake. 


22 


J,  Brecfc  Sf  Co.^s  Catalogue  of 


COMMON  HORSE  RAKE. 


The  great  objection  to  this  Rake  is- in  having  to  stop  the  horse 
to  unload,  when  a sufficient  quantity  of  Hay  is  collected  for  a 
wdnrow',  it  taking  at  least  three  times  as  long  to  unload  as  it  does 
to  load,  and  ahhongh  ifiis  Hake  costs  much  Jess  in  the  first  place 
than  the  Revolving  Rake,  it  is  much  the  dtjarest  article  in  the  end. 

HALLOS  HAND  RAKE. 

These  Rakes  are  mide  superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  we 
have  ever  seen,  and  there  is  as  much  improvement  made  in  this 
as  in  any  other  article  in  use. 

HAY  AND  MANURE  FORKS. 

No  one  Implement  has  undergone  so  thorough  an  investigation 
and  Improvement,  as  the  Hay  ar^d  Manure  Fork.  Since  the  first 
introduction  t)r  use  of  these  articles,  great  improvement  has  been 
made  in  the  form  of  them  ; and  the  quality  of  the  steel  from 
which  they  are  made.  Among  the  most  approved  Manure  Forks 
in  use,  are  those  of  Willis’  cast  steel,  manufactured  from  one 
piece,  in  which  no  welding  is  necessary.  These  forks  have  been 
in  common  use  for  twelve  years,  they  are  so  well  tempered  as  to 
have  that  degree  of  elasticity,  that  they  discharge  the  manure 
with  the  greatest  ease  ; they  are  in  no  way  liable  to  clog  or  foul, 
and  are  very  strong  and  durable.  Also,  N.  B.  Harlow’s  Improved 
Shear  Steel  Manure  and  Hay  Forks,  splendid  articles, 

HAY  PRESSES. 

Since  bundle  hay  has  become  a great  article  of  merchandise., 
much  use  is  made  of  the  Hay  Press.  There  is  great  improvement 
in  this  article,  by  which  Hay  is  pressed  much  closer. 

KAY  KNIVES. 

These  knives  are  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  Hay  in  the  mow, 
and  are  a desirable  article  for  that  purpose  and  almost  indispensa- 
ble where  hay  is  stacked  in  the  yard,  or  the  farmer  vvouhl  wish 
to  spend  his  hay  to  the  best  possible  advantage. 


Agricultural  Implements. 


23 


ORAIN  CRADLES. 


The  Grain  Cradle  is  an  ariic  e winch  is  coming  into  very  gen- 
eral use  in  the  JNew  England  States,  where  they  were  till  of  late 
but  little  known,  although  tlnjy  have  been  in  very  general  use  in 
the  southern  and  western  Stales,  f()r  many  years,  and  which  is 
found  to  be  decidedly  the  best  inode  of  harvesting  grain,  as  it  is 
supposed  one  man  will  cradle  five  acres  in  a day  when  he  cannot 
reap  more  than  one.  The  ditierence  in  gathering  a crop  is  so 
much  in  favor  ofcradling,  that  we  imist  suppose  that  it  wdll  be  the 
only  mode  adopted  hereafter,  ami  the  grain  cradle  will  become  of 
as  much  use  as  an  implement  of  husbandry,  as  the  plough  now  is. 

There  has  been  a very  great  improvement  in  the  manufacturing 
of  this  article,  they  are  now  rna«te  on  the  most  improved  plan  ; 
the  scythe  is  well  secured  and  finished  in  a superior  manner  and 
made  of  the  best  cast  steel. 

GRASS  AND  EDGING  SHEARS. 

These  Shears  are  for  the  purpose  of  trimming  Hedges,  edging 
grass  flats,  and  trimming  lawns,  and  the  oftener  they  are  used  for 
this  purpose,  the  more  thrifty  and  thick  the  grass  will  grow,  and 
the  better  it  w'ill  appear. 

SHEEP  SHEARS. 

Though  a small  yet  not  the  least  useful  article  with  the  farmer. 
Great  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  Sheep  and  Horse 
Shears.  The  most  improved  are  those  with  a double  steel  spring 
in  the  bow  part,  and  which  have  a bend  in  the  handle  so  as  to 
admit  their  laying  flat  on  the  pelt  of  the  animal,  and  to  enable  the 
shearer  to  cut  very  fair  and  smooth. 


24 


J".  Breck  Co.^s  Catalogue  of 


SCOTT  KEITH  & CO.’S  IMPROVED  CAST  IRON  PUMP. 


This  pump  wfiS  invented  by  Jesse  Reed  of  Bridgewater,  and 
proves  to  bo  the  most  simple  and  best  constructed  pump  that  is  in 
use,  being  made  of  Cast  Iron,  which  is  considered  the  best  metal 
which  water  can  pass  through,  is  very  durable  and  cheap.  It  has 
metal  boxes  so  constructed,  that  in  raising  the  handle,  the  lower 
box  or  valve  is  opened,  and  the  water  let  off,  which  prevents  its 
freezing.  They  are  so  plain  and  simple  in  their  construction,  that 
they  can  be  put  up  or  taken  down  by  any  common  workman,  and 
no  way  liable  to  get  oul  of  order.  They  are  attached  to  lead  pipes, 
and  are  well  calculated  for  all  domestic  purposes. 

^ PATENT  BRASS  SYRINGE. 

s«if 

Willis’  Improved  Patent  Brass  Syringe  for  watering  plants, 
grape  vines  and  small  trees.  This  s)’ringe  may  be  used  on  all  oc- 
casions when  watering  is  necessary  for  using  a solution  prepared 
for  the  purpose  to  prevent  mildew  on  grape  vines.  See  the  fol- 
lowng  receipt ; — ^ 

Take  a pint  a’nd  a half  of  sulphur,  and  a lump  of  the  best  un- 
slack'ed  lime,  put  these  in  a vessel  of  about  seven  gallons’  mea- 
surement, let  the  sulphur  be  thrown  in  first,  and  the  lime  over  it 
then  pour  in  a pail  of  boiling  water,  stir  it  well  and  let  it  stand 
half  an  hour  j then  fill  the  vessel  with  cold  water,  and  after  stir- 


Agricultural  Implements, 


25 


ring  well  again,  allow  the  whole  to  settle — after  it  has  become  set- 
tled, dip  out  the  clear  liquid  into  a barrel,  and  fill  the  barrel  with 
cold  water,  and  it  is  then  fit  for  use.  You  next  proceed  with  a 
syringe  iiolding  about  a pint  and  a half,  and  throw  the  liquid  with 
it  on  the  vines  in  everj^  direction,  so  as  to  completely  cover  foliage, 
fruit  and  wood — this  .should  be  particularly  done  when  the  fruit  is 
just  forming  and  about  one  third  the  size  of  a pea,  and  be  contin- 
ued twice  or  thrice  a week  for  two  or  three  weeks — the  whole 
process  for  one  or  two  hundred  grape  vines  need  not  exceed  half 
an  hour. 

DOUBLE  ACTING  FORCE  PUMP. 


This  pump  is  constructed  of  the  most  durable  materials  and  of 
any  capacity  required.  It  stands  upright  like  a common  pump, 
and  while  it  draws  the  water  from  a well  with  the  requirement  of 
but  moderate  power,  a medium  size  will  force  it  in  a steady  stream 
at  the  j-ate  of  over  60  gallons  a minute  to  the  roof  of  a four  story 
house.  A reservoir  can  thus  be  filled  at  the  top  of  a house  for  use 
in  the  chambers,  or  for  bathing,  in  a few  moments.  Affixing  a 
hose,  the  roof  and  outside  of  a house  may  be  washed  ; or  in  case 
of  a room  catching  fire,  it  may  be  flooded  with  water,  in  the  time 
required  to  obtain  one  bucket.  It  is  particularly  valuable  for  ships 
and  steam  boats,  and  also  for  Rail  Roads,  in  supplying  water  for 
the  tender.  The  attention  of  the  public  is  invited  to  this  pump, 
which  combines  in  itself  so  many  advantages. 

3 


26 


J.  Breck  ^ Co.^s  Catalogue  of 


ROLLER  FORCING  PUMP. 


This  pump  is  intended  as  a substitute  for  the  Iron  and  Copper 
pumps  now  in  use,  for  wells,  cisterns,  &c.,  throwing  from  10  to  30 
gallons  per  minute,  and  occupying  but  little  space.  It  is  attached 
to  an  iron  frame  so  that  it  is  easily  secured  in  any  situation  requir- 
ed. It  is  so  made  as  to  let  off  the  water  to  prevent  its  freezing, 
and  by  attaching  a pipe,  the  water  can  be  ‘forced  to  any  part  of  the 
house  or  building,  and  in  case  of  fire,  will  answer  a good  purpose, 
as  a fire  engine. 

The  price  is  from  12  to  20  dollars. 

Application  for  the  Double  Force  and  Roller  Pump,  may  be 
made  at  our  Warehouse,  or  of  Messrs  Thayer  &>  Edwards,  Boston. 

HALE’S  IMPROVED  ROTARY  PUMP. 

This  pump  which  is  a great  improvement  upon  the  various  ro- 
tary pumps  now  in  use,  is  very  plain  and  simple  in  its  construc- 
tion and  no  way  liable  to  get  out  of  order  ; but  works  with  great 


Agricultural  Implements, 


27 


ease  and  facility,  throws  a constant  and  regular  slrearh  by  a very 
simple  operation  of  a crank,  and  is  calculated  for  all  kinds  of  do- 
mestic purposes,  as  well  as  for  Green  Houses,  Factories,  &.c. 


SAYLE’S  GARDEN  ENGINES. 


HHj^^eed  Sower,  invented  the  last  season 
Piplhachines  ever  introduced  for  the  purpose. 
^.^,'lhe  farmer  may  be  certain  that  his  seed  is 
wnd,  and,  at  the  same  time  in  the  best  possible 
pwjvexe  has  been  a great  difficulty  in  machines  for  sow- 
ppfen^seeds ; they  are  very  apt  to  clog  up,  and  the  farmer 
’jt  go  over  an  acre  of  land  and  not  sow  a single  seed  5 but  not 
so^'with  this;  it  is  so  constructed  that  it  cannot  possibly  clog. 
In  using  this  sower,  the  farmer  can  save  one  half  seed,  and 

do  the  work  at  less  than  one  quarter  the  expense  of  the  common 
wav  of  sowing  his  seeds,  and  have  it  done  in  a much  better  man- 
ner; it  opens  the  furrow,  drops  the  seed,  covers  it  over  and  rolls 

3^ 


28 


J.  Brech  ^ CoJs  Catalogue  of 


PATENT  FIRE  PROOF  WROUGHT  IRON  SALAMANDER 

SAFES. 


These  Safes  have  been  several  limes  tested,  and  found  to  an- 
swer completely,  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  designed. 

In  order  to  test  their  resistance  of  heat,  one  was  placed  in  a 
Furnace  in  Wall  Street,  New  York,  and  a blast  kept  up  for  18 
rpij Insufficient  to  melt  the  stones  of  which  the  furnace  was  con- 
pumps  bushels  charcoal,  and  the  safe  with  its  con- 

nrallona  nor" P^^tcly  safc  and  uninjured.  Also  a trial  was 
fo  an  irnn  f ^ ..Boston,  by  placing  in  the  same  furnace,  one 

ed  IH.  .n  “■'r  •,  WloT’s  Double,  and  one  of  the 

house  or  building,  and  in  case 
as  a fire  engine. 

IJplEn  ^rtlm  Double  For^e 
made  at  our  Warehouse,  or  of  Messrs  Thayei  v r,ending  the  ^ala- 

protection  of 

HALE’S  IMPROVED  ROTARY  PUMP. 


that  Scott’s  Asbestos,  and 
ly  destroyed  with  their  contents 
^der  remained  in  the  furnace 


Ihis  pump  which  is  a great  improvement  upon  the  various  rv.of 
tary  pumps  now  in  use,  is  very  plain  and  simple  in  its  construc- 
tion and  no  way  liable  to  get  out  of  order ; but  works  with  great 


Agricultural  Implemeuts, 


29 


WILLIS’S  SEED  SOWER. 


This  machine  is  calculated  to  sow  all  kinds  of  Garden  seed, 
such  as  Mangel  VVunzel,  Ruta  Baga,  Turnips,  Carrots,  Paisnips, 
Onions,  Beefs,  &c.  beintr  simple  in  its  construction,  and  certain 
in  its  operation.  The  saving  of  seed  in  tliis  implement  is  quite 
sufficient  to  pay  the  cost  of  it  in  one  season,  and  the  seed  is  sown 
much  rnore  regular  and  even. 


WILLIS’S  LATEST  IMPROVED  SEED  SOWER. 


Willis’s  latest  Improved  Seed  Sower,  invented  the  last  season  ; 
one  of  the  most  perfect  machines  ever  introduced  for  the  purpose. 
In  using  this  machine,  the  farmer  may  be  certain  that  his  seed  is 
put  into  the  ground,  and,  at  the  same  time  in  the  best  possible 
manner.  There  has  been  a great  difficulty  in  machines  for  sow- 
ing garden  seeds ; they  are  very  apt  to  clog  up,  and  the  farmer 
might  go  over  an  acre  of  land  and  not  sow  a single  seed  ; but  not 
so  with  this ; it  is  so  constructed  that  it  cannot  possibly  clog. 
In  using  this  sower,  the  farmer  can  save  one  half  of  his  seed,  and 
do  the  work  at  less  than  one  quarter  the  expense  of  the  common 
way  of  sowing  his  seeds,  and  have  it  done  in  a much  better  man- 
ner; it  opens  the  furrow,  drops  the  seed,  covers  it  over  and  rolls 

3^ 


30 


J.  Breck  ^ Co's  Catalogue  of 


them  down.  Ft  will  sow  almost  any  kind  of  Garden  Seeds;  say 
Ruta  Baga,  Mangel  Wurtzel,  Turnips,  Carrots,  Beets,  Parsnips, 
Onions,  &c.  It  is  highly  recommended  by  a great  number  of 
persons  who  have  used  it  the  present  season. 

IMPROVED  HAND  SOWERS, 

Caleulated  for  sowing  Garden  and  Field  Seeds,  and  very  use- 
ful for  the  purpose  intended. 


HORTICULTURAL  CHESTS, 


With  a complete  set  of  Garden  tools,  a very  useful  article  for 
ladies  or  gentlemen  ; the  tools  are  all  fitted  to  one  handle,  and  the 
handle  sciewed  together  so  that  all  the  tools  may  be  packed  into 
the  chest,  and  locked  up ; every  lady  or  gentleman  that  is  fond  of 
gardening  should  be  furnished  with  a Tool  Ches't. 

GARDEN  REELS  AND  LINES. 

These  reels  and  lines  are  not  only  very  convenient  for  the  gar- 
dener in  laying  out  his  borders,  beds  and  alleys,  but  absolutely 
necessary  where  he  intends  to  preserve  due  order  and  regulation. 

EDGING  AND  TRIMMING  KNIVES. 

These  Knives  are  used  for  cutting  and  primming  grass  flats, 
borders,  &c.  They  are  found  to  be  one  of  those  handy  and  useful 
tools  which  every  gardener  should  have. 

POMACE  KNIVES. 

These  knives  are  indispensable  in  a cider  country. 


Agricultural  Implements, 


31 


PATENT  CORN  SHELLER. 


A Corn  Sheller  is  one  of  the  most  convenient  and  labor  saving 
implements  that  the  practical  farmer  has  in  use.  Various  machines 
for  this  purpose  have  been  invented.  It  can  be  used  in  all  cases 
for  large  or  small  sized  ears.  It  is  very  simple  in  its  construction^ 
and  durable  in  its  operation,  and  no  way  liable  to  get  out  of  or- 
der ; one  man  can  work  it  to  good  . advantage,  though  a man  to 
turn  and  a boy  to  feed  it,  works  it  much  better  than  one  alone. 
They  are  so  light  and  portable,  as  to  be  easily  removed  from 
place  to  place,  and  one  machine  will  serve  for  several  families  or 
even  the  inhabitants  of  a small  town. 

STRAW  SPLITTERS. 

This  little  implement,  which  is  plain  and  simple  in  its  construc- 
tion, is  one  of  the  most  useful  implements  and  should  be  intro- 
duced and  used  in  every  family,  in  town  and  country. 


32 


J,  Breck  (f*  Co.'s  Catalogue  of 


WILLIS'S  IMPROVED  DOUBLE  OPERATING  CORN 
SHELLER, 


The  most  perfect  and  substantial  article  that  has  been  introduced 
for  the  purpose  ; tliis  machine  can  be  worked  by  hand,  or  any  oth- 
er power,  and  will  shell  two  ears  of  corn  at  the  same  lime ; they 
are  highly  approved  by  all  that  have  used  them. 

CARTER’S  GUIDE  BOARD  BRANDS. 

A very  useful  article  for  country  towns  ; they  consist  of  an  al- 
phabet of  letters,  with  a series  of  figures,  hands,  <&c.  of  suitable 
size,  (forty  pieces  in  number,)  well  packed  in  a box.  A set  of 
brands  would  probably  serve  a town  for  a century,  and  supply  the 
necessary  guide  boards.  The  letters  are  burnt  into  the  board, 
with  a neat  brand  and  may  be  read  at  a great  distance  and  will  en- 
dure until  the  board  perishes.  Every  town  should  be  supplied 
with  a set  of  these  brands,  and  if  used  in  their  poor  bouses,  the 
guide  boards  would  cost  merely  nothing. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  USING  THE  RRANDS. 

The  brands  are  to  be  heated  to  a cherry-red,  then  applied  to 
the  board,  and  guided  by  a straight  piece  tacked  on  to  keep  them 
in  a line.  The  board  is  then  to  be  lightly  planed  over,  and  the 
white  lead  applied  in  the  usual  manner  with  brush.  The  black 
letters  will  not  lose  their  brightness,  for  the  durability  of  charcoal 
is  well  known. 


Agricultural  Implements, 


33 


WILLIS’S  IMPROVED  SUGAR  MILL. 


Willis’s  Improved  Sugar  Mill  for  grinding  the  Havana  and 
other  sugars;  one  of  the  best  labor  saving  machines  that  has  been 
introduced  for  our  friends  in  the  grocery  business.  It  will  grind 
with  ease  a box  of  four  hundred  pounds  of  sugar  in  twenty  min- 
utes, leaving  the  grain  of  the  sugar  in  the  most  perfect  order  for 
retailing. 


HARRIS’S  IMPROVED  PAINT  MIJ.L. 


This  Mill  can  be  used  by  hand,  horse  or  any  other  power  and 
woiks  to  great  advantage.  From  the  very  plain  and  simple  man- 


34 


J.  Breck  Co.'s  Catalogue  of 


ner  of  its  construction,  it  is  easily  taken  to  pieces  and  cleaned. 
It  is  used  with  great  facility,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  best  and 
most  useful  mills  in  use. 

BARK  AND  PLASTER  MILLS. 

The  Troy  Bark  and  Plaster  Mill*.  These  mills  are  alter- 
ed and  much  improved  from  the  old  fashioned  mill  which  has 
been  in  use  for  many  years. 

FAMILY  HAND  MILL. 

Willis’s  Improved  Patent  Family  or  Plantation  Mill,  calculated 
for  grinding  corn,  cotfee,  &c. ; has  a small  balance  wheel  which 
regulates  its  operation,  and  causes  it  to  work  free  and  easy. 

CORN  AND  COB  CRACKER. 

This  Mill,  which  is  calculated  for  grinding  cob  and  corn  togeth- 
er, is  found  to  make  the  best  provender  and  the  most  economical 
food  for  fattening  hogs  or  horses.  It  is  so  constructed  ns  to  be 
used  with  a common  grist  mill  or  separate,  as  circumstances  may 
require,  and  may  be  wor  ked  by  a single  horse  or  any  other  power. 
From  thirty  to  forty  bushels  per  hour  have  been  ground  in  these 
mills,. 


NEW  PATENT  WINNOWING  MACHINE. 


Holmes’  Improved  Winnowing  Machine  is  one  of  the  best  that 
is  in  use.  It  is  very  plain  and  simple  in  its  construction,  and  very 
powerful  in  its  operation  ; is  well  calculated  for  cleaning  all 


Agricultural  Implements, 


35 


kinds  of  grain,  and  m3.y  be  applied  to  many  other  purposes — such 
as  cleaning  rice,  coffee,  &c. 


SPRINGER’S  HORIZONTAL  MILL  is  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. 


PEAT  KNIVES  AND  SPADES. 

These  Knives  for  cutting  peat  as  an  article  for  fuel,  are  coming 
much  into  use  in  many  parts  of  this  country  where  peat  is  found. 

DITCHING  KNIVES  AND  SPADES. 

These  Knives  are  calculated  for  cutting  ditches,  trimming  low 
swamp  land,  and  found  very  useful  for  the  purposes. 


36 


J.  Brecic  Co/s  Catalogue  of 


VEGETABLE  CUTTER. 


Willis’s  Improved  Vegetable  Cutter  for  cutting  large  or  small 
roots.  The  great  objection  to  all  other  machines,  is  their  cutting 
the  roots  into  slices,  which  makes  it  almost  impossible  for  the  cat- 
tle to  get  hold  of  them } this  machine  with  a little  alteration,  cuts 
them  into  large  or  small  pieces,  of  such  shape  as  is  most  conve- 
nient for  the  cattle  to  eat.  It  will  cut  with  ease  from  one  to  two 
bushels  of  roots  per  minute.  No  farmer  should  be  without  one  of 
these  machines. 

CAST  STEEL  AND  COMMON  AXES. 

This  article  among  our  famers,is  one  of  the  most  useful  im- 
plements ever  invented.  Underhill’s  cast  steel  axes,  have  been 
considered  the  best,  and  most  approved  in  form  and  shape,  and 
are  warranted  in  every  respect  to  be  one  of  the  best  quality. 
They  are  finished  in  the  most  perfect  manner,  and  ground  to  a 
fine  smooth  cutting  edge. 

Hatchets,  cleavers,  and  many  other  tools,  made  by  different 
workmen,  and  finished  in  the  same  manner. 

LIGHTNING  RODS  AND  GLASS  BLOCKS. 

From  the  repeated,  and  almost  daily  occurrences,  which  happen 
from  the  effect  of  lightning,  occasioning  death  and  destruction  of 
much  property,  it  is  a matter  of  surprise  that  every  farmer  does 
not  have  attached  to  his  dwelling  house  and  barn,  a lightning  rod 
and  guarded  in  the  best  possible  manner, — which  is  done  by  pass- 
ing the  rod  through  glass  blocks,  which  are  constructed  for  the 
purpose. 


Agricultural  Implements, 


37 


DROOKS’S  PATENT  SILK  SPINNING  MACHINE. 


Brooks’s  silk  spinning  and  reeling  machine,  is  found  to  be  a very 
simple  and  easy  operating  machine,  and  yet  one  of  the  most  per- 
fect that  has  been  invented  for  the  purpose  of  reeling  and  twisting 
silk  from  the  cocoons,  and  manufacturing  it  into  sewing  silk.  By 
the  different  arrangements  of  this  machine,  it  will  operate  iipon  a 
single  or  double  thread,  as  may  be  required,  and  prepare  it  for 
twisting  or  weaving.  Experience  has  fully  proved  that  by  uniting 
the  filaments  of  silk  as  they  are  drawn  from  the  cocoons,  wet  in 
their  natural  glutinous  substance  before  they  are  dry,  the  thread  is 
more  firm,  smooth  and  stronger.  The  simplicity  of  the  ma- 
chine, and  the  very  easy  way  in  which  it  is  used,  brings  it  within 
the  comprehension  and  capacity  of  any  person  to  use  it. 

This  machine  is  so  constructed  as  to  draw,  or  reel  and  twist  the 
silken  fibre  immediately  as  it  passes  from  the  cocoons;  and  thence 
makes  it  into  warp  or  filling  for  weaving,  or  into  finislied  sewing 
silk  or  twist;  each  of  which  is  made  by  one  movement  of  the 
machine  at  the  choice  of  the  operator. 

They  are  calculated  for  family  use,  but  may  be  so  enlarged  as  to 
be  applicable  lo  the  most  extensive  factories. 

The  inventor  has  made  about  one  hundred  machines,  which  have  . 
gone  into  successful  operation  in  different  parts  of  the  Union  ; and 
has  received  several  satisfactory  certificates  from  those  who  use 
them.  He  has  also  received  the  following  testimonies  of  appro- 
bation from  different  societies  ; — 

In  1833  a premium  of  §10  and  a cenificate,  expres.sing  their 

4 


38 


J,  Breck  8f  Co,^s  Catalogue  of 


approbation  of  his  truly  labor  saving  machine,  from  the  Plymouth 
County  Agricultural  Society. 

The  same  year  a premium  of  $20  from  the  Massachusetts  Agri- 
cultural Society. 

In  1834  a medal  and  $20  from  the  Philadelphia  Agricultural 
Society,  from  Scott’s  legacy. 

Also  a premium  of  $10  from  the  Kennebeck  County  Agricul- 
tural Society,  in  Maine. 

In  1837  a premium  of  $10,  awarded  from  the  Agricultural  So- 
ciety held  ip  Albany,  N.  Y. 

A medal  and  diploma  from  the  Massachusetts  Mechanic  Associa- 
tion. 

And  a gold  medal  and  diploma  from  the  American  Institute, 
New  York. 


WILLIS’  IMPROVED  SAUSAGE  FILLER. 


This  machine  which  is  intended  for  filling  sausages,  is  one  of 
the  most  convenient  and  expeditious  things  for  the  purposed  that 
can  be  conceived  of.  One  man  will  do  more  in  preparing  and  fill- 
ing sausages  with  this  machine,  than  ten  men  can  in  the  old  man- 
ner of  working  them. 


OX  YOKES,  AND  OX  BOWS. 


BRASS  OX  BALLS, 

Of  all  sizes.  These  balls  are  not  only  ornamental,  but  useful 
in  preventing  the  animal  from  hooking,  or  being  in  other  respects 
mischievous. 


Agricultural  Implements, 


39 


SMITH’S  SUBSOIL  PLOUGH,  IMPROVED. 


The  most  astonishing  effects  f’ppear  to  have  been  produced  by 
the  invention  of  the  above  machine.  It  is  a necessary  accompani- 
ment to  draining,  and  is  also  well  calculated  to  make  the  most 
unproductive  soil,  fertile  and  profitable.  By  breaking  the  subsoil 
without  bringing  it  to  the  surface,  renders  it  pervious  both  to  air 
and  water,  and  after  a few  years,  by  a greater  depth  of  ploughing, 
the  subsoil  is  mixed  with  the  upper  and  is  found  to  be  so  com- 
pletely changed  in  its  nature  as  to  be  capable  of  producing  every 
species  of  grain. 


MAJOR  WHEELER’S  PARING  PLOUGH,  IMPROVED. 


The  object  of  this  plough  is  to  take  off  the  top  of  meadow  and 
peat  lands,  for  the  purpose  of  reclaiming  them.  From  one  to  two 
acres  can  be  pared  in  a day,  and  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  days, 
if  the  weather  is  pleasant,  it  will  be  dry  enough  to  burn.  In  this 
way  meadow  or  peat  land  may  be  made  to  produce  large  crops  of 
hay,  &c. 


40 


J.  Breck  Co/s  Catalogue  of 


DUTCHER’S  PATENT  COOKING  STOVE, 


For  burning  wood  or  coal,  is  one  of  the  most  econonaical  and 
perfect  articles  for  family  use  yet  introduced,  it  having  an  open 
grate  and  yet  answering  all  the  purpose  for  cooking.  The  grate 
is  made  so  to  rise  or  fall,  that  when  the  fire  gets  low  the  grate 
can  be  raised  directly  under  the  boilers.  It  has  been  highly  recom- 
mended by  a great  number  of  persons  who  used  them  last  season. 

FESSENDEN’S  PATENT  LAMP  TEA  KETTLE. 


This  lamp  apparatus  for  heating  water,  &c.  has  been  found  very 
useful  in  small  families,  and  for  such  persons  as  may  wish  to  have 
Tea,  Coffee,  Eggs,  or  any  other  small  articles  boiled,  without  the 
trouble  of  making  a wood  or  coal  fire. 


Agricultural  Implements. 


GRINDSTONES,  ON  FRICTION  ROLLERS. 


Grindstones  of  different  sizes  hung  on  friction  rollers  and 
moved  with  a foot  treader,  is  found  to  be  a great  improvement  on 
the  present  mode  of  hanging  grindstones.  The  ease  with  which 
they  move  upon  the  rollers,  renders  them  very  easy  to  turn  with 
the  foot,  by  which  the  labor  of  one  man  is  saved,  and  the  person 
in  the  act  of  grinding  can  govern  the  stone  more  to  his  mind  by 
having  the  complete  control  of  his  work.  Stones  hung  in  this 
manner  are  becoming  daily  more  in  use,  and  wherever  used  give 
universal  satisfaction.  The  rollers  can  be  attached  to  stones  hung 
n the  common  way. 


ROGERS’  PATENT  METALLIC  HONE  AND  STRAP, 

WM(  ROGEKS’Wrt 

mm  p ATE:NrTMi> J 

A superior  article  for  Razors,  Penknives,  &c.  &c. 

STAMPS. 

Of  all  descriptions,  for  marking  and  branding  the  farmer’s  tools, 
of  which  every  farmer  who  is  in  the  habit  of  lending  and  accom- 
modating his  neighbors  and  friends,  as  all  farmers  are  and  must 
be,  should  have  every  tool  marked  with  his  name.  This  prevents 
the  loss  of  many  tools,  and  much  inquiry  and  trouble  among  neigh- 
bors. 


42 


J.  BrecJc  ^ Co.^s  Catalogiie  of 


CRANBERRY  RAKE. 


A very  useful  article  for  gathering  Cranberries.  One  person 
with  a rake  will  do  more  than  six  or  eight  can  in  the  same  time, 
gathering  by  hand. 

CATTLE  CHAINS. 


These  chains  introduced  by  E.  H.  Derbv,  Esq.  of  Salem,  and 
Col.  Jacques,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  cattle  to  the  stall,  are 
found  to  be  the  safest  and  most  convenient  mode  of  fastening  cows 
and  oxen  to  the  stanchion.  They  consist  of  a chain  which  passes 
round  the  animal’s  neck,  and  by  a ring  attached  to  the  stall,  plays 
freely  up  and  down,  and  leaves  the  animal  at  liberty  to  lie  down 
or  rise  at  pleasure,  and  keeps  him  perfectly  secure. 

Many  improvements  have  been  made  in  this  article  and  even  in 
the  bows  and  keys. 


f Agricultural  Implements, 


FLAGG  S HORSE  POWER  AND  THRESHING  MACHINE, 


This  machine  is  much  used  in  the  Southern  and  Western  States 
for  threshing  all  kinds  of  grain,  but  is  not  so  highly  approved  as 
Hale’s  machine,  for  the  same  purpose.  ^ • . 

POMROY’S  PATENT  SPRING  STAPLE, 

For  securing  horses.  The  improvement  in  this  staple,  is  such, 
that  if  the  horse  is  cast,  or  in  any  way  entangled  he  can  disengage 
and  free  himself.  Many  fine  and  valuable  horses  are  lost  for  the 
want  of  this  self  regulating  staple. 


44 


J.  Breck  ^ Co/s  Catalogue. 


BEE  HIVES. 


Dr  Thatcher’s  Improved  Bee  Hive,  for  affording  the  most  effect- 
ual security  against  the  ravages  of  the  Bee-moth,  and  keeping 
the  bees  dry  and  comfortable  during  winter.  The  honey  can 
taken  without  destroying  the  bees. 

CARRIAGE  LIFTim, 

Or  levers,  for  raising  wagons,  carts,  or  carriages  of  all  kinds,  or 
for  raising  loads,  pressing  goods,  <&c. ; being  a small  handy  imple- 
ment it  can  be  taken  in  a carriage  in  travelling,  and  found  very 
convenient  and  handy  for  the  purpose.  Carriage  wrenches  are 
likewise  very  convenient  and  handy  tr^elling  companions,  and 
should  always  be  at  hand. 

CURRY  COMBS,  AND  BRASS  TEETH  CATTLE  CARDS. 

Patent  and  common  curry  combs,  and  cards  with  brass  teeth  — 
no  stock  farm  should  ever  be  kept  without  a good  supply  of  these 
articles  and  constant  use  being  made  of  them. 


Axe  Handles. 

Post  Augers. 

Pick  Axes. 

Post  Spoons. 

Stable  Door  Hasps. 

Iron  Bars. 

Churn  Drills. 

Hand  Drills  and  Hammers, 
Steel  and  Iron  Bull  Rings. 
Trace  and  Ox  Chain. 

Hoe  and  Truck  Chains. 


Chains  for  Securing  Cattle. 
Flagg’s  Brick  Press. 

Iron  Castings. 

Hay  Pullers. 

Friction  Rollers. 

Wagons,  Ox  & Horse  Carts. 
Wheel  Barrows. 

Hand  Engines- 
Watering  Po  s. 

Improv  d Safety  Lamps. 
Bara  and  Hand  Lanterns. 


GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY 


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